A historical recount of Jingdezhen ceramics: from northern to southern Song Dynasty

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Content A HISTORICAL RECOUNT OF JINGDEZHEN CERAMICS:
FROM NORTHERN TO SOUTHERN SONG DYNASTY
by
Yiyi Chen
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSKI SCHOOL OF ART AND DESIGN
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
(CURATORIAL PRACTICES AND THE PUBLIC SPHERE)
May 2025
Copyright 2024 Yiyi Chen

Acknowledgements
None of this would have happened without my advisor, Professor Andrew Campbell. His
knack for cutting through the noise helped me build this thesis from scratch, even when
deadlines felt impossible. Huge thanks too to my committee, Professor Miya Elise Desjardins
and Professor Thomas Mueller, who did not just review my drafts but helped turn rough ideas
into something I am proud of.
To every professor who shaped my journey: Thank you for sharing not just textbooks but
life lessons. You turned confusion into clarity, and your advice became the kind of wisdom that
sticks with a person long after graduation. You showed me that education is not just about
ideas—it is about lighting a path forward, both in work and in life.
To my parents, halfway across the world: Your love built a bridge over every mile
between us. The care packages stuffed with homemade snacks, the late-night calls where you
would ask, “Did you eat yet?”—those little things kept me going. You taught me that “home” is
not a place; it is the people who let you spread your wings but never let you forget where you
started.
To my friends: You are the real MVPs. Thanks for the coffee runs, the last-minute pep
talks, and for reminding me that life is not all about highlight reels. The best lessons came from
your quiet kindness and the way you showed up, no questions asked.
This paper is dedicated to everyone who believed in me—and for that wide-eyed 20-year-old
who still cannot believe she made it.
We live in this world when we love it.
ii

Table of Contents
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ iv
Abstract........................................................................................................................................... v
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 1
Overview of Jingdezhen and Song History.............................................................................. 5
Key Terms....................................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 1: Kilns............................................................................................................................ 14
Similarity: Competition between Kilns as a Common Topic................................................. 14
Differences: Technical Mastery vs. Historical Context.......................................................... 19
Chapter 2: Qingbai Porcelain........................................................................................................ 29
Similarity: Qingbai porcelain’s technical and cultural significance....................................... 29
Differences: English texts emphasize societal values and global trade, while Mandarin texts
focus on technical mastery and regional production............................................................... 33
Chapter 3: Global Trade................................................................................................................ 43
Divergent Scholarly Approaches to Qingbai Porcelain Trade................................................ 43
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................... 46
Bibliography................................................................................................................................. 51
Appendices.................................................................................................................................... 54
iii

List of Figures
Map 1. A Historical Map of Jingdezhen during the Qing Dynasty, 17th-20th century, Chinese
National Human Geography……………………………………………………………………... 5
Map 2. Jingdezhen Location Map (as of 2025), China Connection Tours………………………. 6
Fig 1. Bowl, Porcelain covered with a celadon glaze (Qingbai ware), H. 2 3/4 in. (7 cm); Diam. 7
1/4 in. (18.4 cm), 12th-13th century, the MET…………………………………………………. 10
Fig 2. Hutian Ancient Kiln Site, 10th-14th century, The Palace Museum Journal……………... 13
Fig 3. Dragon Kiln, Bloomberg China.…………………………………………………………. 17
Fig 4. Dragon Kiln, Bloomberg China.…………………………………………………………. 18
Fig 5. Illustration of the xiaobo yangshao method, China National Porcelain Network……….. 21
Fig 6. Northern Song Dynasty Qingbai-glazed Ewer and Warming Bowl with Stand, Weibo… 36
Fig 7. Bowl (one of a pair), Porcelain with carved decoration under bluish glaze (Qingbai ware),
Diam. 5 1/2 in. (14 cm), 10th–11th century, the MET.…………………………………………. 37
iv

Abstract
Jingdezhen, celebrated as China’s “Porcelain Capital,” rose to prominence during the
Song Dynasty (960–1279) as a center of ceramic innovation, producing the iconic qingbai
(bluish-white) porcelain renowned for its technical precision and refined aesthetics. While its
historical significance is widely acknowledged, scholarship remains divided: Mandarin-language
sources prioritize technical mastery, documenting advancements in kiln structures, glaze
compositions, and regional craftsmanship, whereas English-language studies emphasize
qingbai’s role in global trade networks and cross-cultural exchange. This study bridges these
linguistic and methodological divides by synthesizing bilingual scholarship to interrogate how
Jingdezhen’s ceramic production adapted to shifting cultural, economic, and technological
dynamics in Song China and beyond. Through comparative analysis of primary and secondary
sources, the research reveals that kiln competition drove qingbai’s technical evolution, while
Song-era trade expansion positioned Jingdezhen as a nexus of transnational artistic dialogue.
Key findings underscore the disconnect between Mandarin texts, which frame ceramics as
heritage craft tied to local identity, and English scholarship, which prioritizes porcelain as a
commodity of global influence. By uniting these perspectives, the study highlights Jingdezhen’s
dual legacy as a site of technological ingenuity and cultural intermediation, challenging siloed
approaches to art history.
Key Terms: Jingdezhen, Song Dynasty, qingbai porcelain, kiln technology, global trade
networks, ceramic production, bilingual scholarship, interdisciplinary research
v

Introduction
Porcelain, a now mundane ware seen in various settings, used to be something reserved
for the royaly in China. One cannot discuss porcelain without its most significant historical site
of production: Jingdezhen. Located in the Northeast region of Jiangxi province, this little town,
which spans a little over two thousand square kilometers, has been celebrated as the “Porcelain
Capital” of the world.1 Jingdzhen, and the region surrounding it, evolved into a dominant center
of ceramic production both within the borders of China and internationally during the Song
Dynasty (960—1279) due to historical developments and the expansion of trade and artistic
exchange. The bluish-white porcelains known as qingbai (青白) ware, which emerged from the
kilns of Jingdezhen, became iconic for their fine quality, distinctive aesthetic, and remarkable
technical precision.2 First established as an official ceramic repository in Northern Song, then
received more support in Southern Song, Jingdezhen gradually became an industrial center for
the production, invention, and export of ceramics.3 This transformation was shaped by the
region’s response to shifting political, economic, and cultural forces. To fully appreciate the
depth of Jingdezhen’s contribution, it is crucial to contextualize its evolution within these
broader historical dynamics.
Although Jingdezhen is now recognized as one of the twenty-four National Historical and
Cultural Cities by the State Council of China, most scholarship centers on its cultural, historical,
and trade significance, despite the town itself spanning no more than five acres.4 However, the
4 Ding He, Lin Yuan, and Wenting Chen. “The Connections between Historic Urban Landscape Layers in
Jingdezhen, the Porcelain Capital of China.” Landscape Research 49, no. 3 (2024): 395,
https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2023.2296508.
3 Robert Finlay. The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History. Berkeley: University of California Press,
2010, 137.
2 Adam T. Kessler. Song Blue and White Porcelain on the Silk Road. Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology. 1st ed.
Vol. 27. Boston: BRILL, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004231276, 328; Kessler 348.
1 Xinlu Bao. 唐至宋代景德镇瓷业技术演进及其当代价值初探 (An Exploration of the Evolution of Jingdezhen
Porcelain-Making Techniques from the Tang to the Song Dynasty and Their Contemporary Value). 中国陶瓷, no. 12
(2023): 105. Translated by author.
1

existing literature offers a fragmented analysis, with Mandarin and English sources emphasizing
different facets of Jingdezhen ceramics from the Song Dynasty. This paper aims to bring together
these perspectives, examining both sides of the story, as well as the reason behind why the
literature splits. By aggregating scholarly articles, books, and historical texts through the author’s
bilingual expertise, this study seeks to open up new avenues of approaching Jingdezhen’s role
within both local and global ceramic traditions.
Contemporary exhibitions in China further underscore Jingdezhen’s enduring relevance.
For instance, the 2023 exhibition Echoes of the Kiln: 1,000 Years of Jingdezhen Ceramics at the
Jingdezhen China Ceramics Museum juxtaposed Song Dynasty qingbai ware with modern
experimental pieces by Jingdezhen-based artists, highlighting how traditional techniques
continue to inspire innovation.5 Similarly, the 2021 Shanghai Biennale featured installations by
ceramicists from Jingdezhen’s Taoxichuan Art District, who reimagined Song-era glaze formulas
to critique modern consumerism—a testament to the town’s evolving dialogue between heritage
and modernity.
6 These exhibitions reflect a growing institutional effort to frame Jingdezhen not
merely as a historical site but as a living tradition, bridging its imperial past with contemporary
artistic practice.
Methodology
This thesis aims to bridge a significant gap in the scholarship by integrating Mandarin
and English sources on Jingdezhen ceramics, bringing together perspectives that have
traditionally been explored in isolation. Mandarin-language sources, particularly those
originating from Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute and China Ceramic Industry Journal, provide
6 “Power Station of Art,” Power station of art, accessed March 23, 2025,
https://www.powerstationofart.com/whats-on.
5 Global Times, “Jingdezhen China Ceramics Museum Showcases Masterpieces of Its Namesake Art,” Global
Times, December 12, 2024, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202412/1324916.shtml.
2

in-depth insights into kiln practices, material compositions, historical texts, and excavation
reports from key sites in Jingdezhen. While some sources connect Jingdezhen porcelain with the
overall historical context of the Song dynasty, a predominant number of these sources emphasize
the technical evolution of ceramic production, documenting innovations in kiln structures, glaze
compositions, and firing techniques unique to the region. This is in part attributed to how
ceramic-making is largely treated as a craft rather than an art practice. However, much of this
valuable information remains inaccessible to English-speaking scholars, limiting the depth of
analysis in Western studies of Jingdezhen’s ceramics.
Conversely, English-language scholarship often situated Jingdezhen’s ceramics within the
context of global trade and artistic influence, zooming out on the economic and cultural impacts
of porcelain on both Eastern and Western markets. This body of text underscores the ways in
which Jingdezhen porcelain were primarily studied as commodities of cultural exchange,
symbolizing China’s reach and influence during the Song Dynasty. By drawing on both
Mandarin and English sources, this study addresses the following research questions: How did
Jingdezhen’s ceramics production adapt and respond to the cultural and economic shifts within
and beyond Song China? What key technological innovations are documented in Chinese
sources but remain under-explored in English scholarship? Why do Mandarin and English
literature have a varied emphasis when studying the same topic? How does this split in the focus
of literature illuminate the differing values placed on ceramic artistry?
The methodological approach of this thesis involves a comprehensive analysis of both
primary and secondary sources, with an emphasis on integrating previously siloed perspectives.
Existing Mandarin sources will be examined then summarized by the author, with a particular
focus on how these texts provide new or alternate insights. Then, the paper will shift to the gap in
3

existing English literature, seeking to fill the gaps that can be difficult to fill across languages.
This dual-source approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of Jingdezhen's role within
Song China and its impact on global ceramic production. This study draws on Mandarin sources
for their detailed insights into the technical side of Jingdezhen’s ceramic production—expertise
honed over centuries of craftsmanship and innovation, especially at historic sites like the
Luomaqiao kiln complex. These Mandarin texts offer more than just technical knowledge; they
also reveal cultural values and philosophies that shape local interpretations of Jingdezhen’s
ceramics, pointing to the symbolic meanings and aesthetic ideals woven into their designs. In
contrast, English-language studies provide broader frameworks to understand Jingdezhen’s
impact beyond China, positioning its ceramics within global narratives of art history, commerce,
and cultural exchange. By synthesizing these two bodies of scholarship, this research aims to
establish a comprehensive understanding of Jingdezhen’s significance that honors both the
technical mastery and the cultural value of its ceramics.
In synthesizing these insights, this study endeavors to contribute to the broader field of
art history and material culture by offering a well-rounded view of Jingdezhen’s ceramics that
honors both the artistry and legacy of Song Dynasty artisans. The integration of linguistic,
cultural, and technical perspectives aims to provide a comprehensive framework for future
research on Chinese ceramics, highlighting Jingdezhen’s profound impact on the evolution of
global ceramics. Furthermore, this thesis seeks to position Jingdezhen’s ceramics as a critical
point of intersection between Eastern and Western scholarly traditions, bridging linguistic
divides to enrich our understanding of this remarkable heritage. Recognizing the need for
reciprocity in scholarly discourse, a future iteration of this research could benefit from being
4

translated into Mandarin, ensuring its accessibility to a broader audience and fostering a deeper
exchange of knowledge.
Overview of Jingdezhen and Song History
As the central hub of ceramics, Jingdezhen exhibits an interesting geographical location
worth exploring. Given the Song Dynasty’s reign shift from the Northern to the Southern Song in
1127, understanding the terrestrial context of this place is a vital precondition before proceeding
with any analysis of Jingdezhen ceramics. For instance, many perceive the name of this town as
solely a term that at most embodies historical or cultural significance when, in fact, “zhen”
should be interpreted as the equivalent of a “township.”
Map 1. A Historical Map of Jingdezhen during the Qing Dynasty, 17th-20th century, Chinese National Human
Geography.
5

Map 2. Jingdezhen Location Map (as of 2025), China Connection Tours.
There exists a top-down hierarchy in which Jingdezhen is categorized in geographical
terms: Jiangxi province, Fuliang county, Jingde zhen. Although Jingdezhen has now been
re-categorized as a municipal city, the provenance of this name dates back to 1004, when Song
Zhenzong (宋真宗)—an emperor of the Northern Song dynasty—renamed this area known for
ceramic production as his reign title, “Jingde”.7 Hence, the term and the location “Jingdezhen”
only became known under that moniker in the years since Song Zhenzong’s reign. The birth of
Jingdezhen thus became closely tied to this historical era. Another place worth looking into
would be Fuliang (浮梁), a location frequently referenced in historical texts for its close ties to
Jingdezhen’s ceramic production and its significance in the region’s economic and cultural
history. The geographical label following Fuliang is xian (县), which can be interpreted as a
7 Publicity Department of the Jingdezhen Municipal Committee of China. 景德镇陶瓷简史 (A Brief History of
Jingdezhen Porcelain). Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Publishing House, 2023: 37. Translated by author.
6

county in an English context. A key distinction between a county and a township lies in the
latter’s function. Specifically, settlements recognized for their economic or technological
importance, which were responsible for tax payments but lacked the administrative status of a
county seat (xian 县), were typically referred to as zhen (townships).8 Now Fuliang is in fact a
county under the jurisdiction of Jingdezhen city. Hence, subsequent referrals to Fuliang county
should be treated as a part of the broader Jingdezhen unless otherwise noted. Such is the shift in
the importance of Jingdezhen that it has swapped jurisdictional dominance with Fuliang over this
period of time.
The Song dynasty spans over three hundred years and is divided into two distinct periods
due to an internal reign change and a shift in its capital city, generating the Northern and
Southern Song. Jingdezhen’s rise to prominence as a ceramics hub is accompanied by the
transition from the North to the South, when the emperor and a number of Song officials were
captured by the Jin people, forcing the rest of the Song royal bloodline to flee. This incident,
later became known as the Humiliation of Jingkang (靖康之耻), meant more than the end of the
Northern Song and the birth of the Southern Song — it marked the beginning of a migration to
the southern parts of China as the new capital was established in Linan (临安), today’s
Hangzhou.9
If there was one place that benefited from such turbulent and violent political
upheaval, it was Jingdezhen. In the late Northern Song period, the wars between the Song and
Jin dynasties dealt a devastating blow to many of the renowned northern kilns, leading to their
gradual decline. As civilians and nobles fled, among them were skilled artisans from the north,
who carried advanced ceramic production techniques to the south. This transfer of expertise,
9 Publicity Department of the Jingdezhen Municipal Committee of China. 景德镇陶瓷史话 (Historical Narratives of
Jingdezhen Porcelain), (Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Publishing House, 2023), 7. Translated by author.
8 Anne Gerritsen. “Fragments of a Global Past: Ceramics Manufacture in Song-Yuan-Ming Jingdezhen.” Journal of
the Economic and Social History of the Orient 52, no. 1 (2009): 128, accessed Nov 15, 2024,
https://doi.org/10.1163/156852009X405366.
7

coupled with Jingdezhen’s close proximity to the newly established Southern Song capital, both
played a pivotal role in the growth of Jingdezhen’s ceramics industry.
The transition from the Northern to the Southern Song thus not only reshaped
Jingdezhen’s trajectory but also underscores a broader dynamic between art and craft within
Chinese ceramic history—a dynamic that continues to influence how Jingdezhen porcelain is
studied today. This paper posits that the relative lack of English-language texts focusing on the
technical details of porcelain production can be attributed, in part, to the ongoing debate between
art and craft in the context of Jingdezhen ceramics. Jingdezhen’s heritage as a producer of fine
porcelain for literati and imperial families further reinforces this distinction, as Mandarin sources
often prioritize craftsmanship and the technical innovations that defined porcelain production.
These sources highlight the intricate processes and regional heritage embedded in ceramics,
while English-language scholarship frequently emphasizes artistic evaluation and the
relationship between porcelain and societal values.
Key Terms
Qingbai Porcelain (青白瓷)
In tracing the evolution of Jingdezhen’s production, key terminology will guide the
analysis and clarify how ceramic artistry developed in relation to regional resources and societal
demand. As mentioned above, the term qingbai, which translates to “bluish-white” in English,
captures the exclusive characteristics of Jingdezhen-produced ceramics. The term first appeared
in the Northern Song dynasty during the first year of Emperor Yingzong’s Zhiping reign (1064)
in Cai Xiang’s Tea Record (茶录), which states: “The white color of tea is best suited for black
8

tea bowls... Qingbai bowls are not used by those who compete in tea contests”(2019).10 This
quote suggests that while qingbai porcelain bowls were used as tea ware, they were not ideal for
tea competitions because their pale glaze did not effectively highlight the white tea’s color. This
observation underscores how the glaze’s distinct visual qualities—blue-tinged white or
white-tinged blue—shaped both its name and cultural application.
Qingbai porcelain derive its name from its glaze, which lies between blue and
white—white tinged with blue and blue tinged with white. Such colors are produced by its high
calcium content, which causes the glaze to become highly fluid when fired at approximately
1300 degrees celsius.11 This fluidity results in uneven thickness on the surface of the piece, as the
glaze tends to pool in areas with carved or embossed patterns. This creates a surface where
thinner sections appear white, while thicker areas take on a slightly deeper hue, producing a
harmonious effect of contrasting tones. The glaze itself contains low levels of iron, giving it a
predominantly white appearance with a faint bluish tint.12 The glaze layer is fine and translucent,
and the porcelain body is often extremely thin, allowing the incised or embossed patterns on the
surface to be visible both inside and out.
12 Publicity Department of the Jingdezhen Municipal Committee of China. 景德镇陶瓷简史 (A Brief History of
Jingdezhen Porcelain), 24.
11 Publicity Department of the Jingdezhen Municipal Committee of China. 景德镇陶瓷简史 (A Brief History of
Jingdezhen Porcelain), 23.
10 Wenwa Chen, 宋代景德镇青白瓷盏托研究 (The Study of Greenish-White Porcelain Zhantuo of Jingdezhen in the
Song Dynasty). Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute, 2019, 13. Translated by author.
9

Fig 1. Bowl, Porcelain covered with a celadon glaze (Qingbai ware), H. 2 3/4 in. (7 cm); Diam. 7 1/4 in. (18.4 cm),
12th-13th century, the MET.
During the Song dynasty, qingbai porcelain from Jingdezhen was characterized by its
harmonious tones and jade-like luster, evoking a sense of freshness and understated elegance.
Qingbai porcelain’s delicate balance of blue and white resonated with the Song dynasty’s
preference for subtlety and natural elegance. This understated aesthetic reflected broader cultural
ideals, such as dan (淡), or simplicity, and jing (静), or tranquility, which were central to Song
literati culture (2017).13 Later generations also referred to this style as yingqing (影青), yinqing
(隐青), or yingqing (映青). Zhicheng Deng, in Miscellaneous Notes on Antiques (骨董琐记),
wrote: “Song porcelain aimed for a pure white that lacked translucence; when it appeared
translucent, it was due to a pale bluish glaze overlay” (1996).14
Zhiheng Xu, in The Sayings on Ceramics from Yinliu Studio (饮流斋说瓷), also noted:
14 Zhicheng Deng, 骨董琐记 (Miscellaneous Notes on Antiques), 1st ed. (Beijing: Zhonghua Shudian, 1996).
Translated by author.
13 Tian Zhang, 文人趣味与景德镇陶瓷 (Literati Taste and Jingdezhen Ceramics), (Beijing: Peking University Press,
2017). Translated by author.
10

Yingqing is indeed an extremely delicate porcelain. Yet there exists a type with a
thicker body where only one side faintly reveals a bluish hue through engraved
patterns. This type is known as yinqing (2010).15
Thus, Qingbai glaze was referred to by various names, such as yingqing, yinqing, yingqing (映
青), or zhaoqing (罩青). The Qing dynasty scholar Zifen Liu, in On Ceramics from the Bamboo
Garden (竹园陶说), remarked:
In recent times, many artifacts have been unearthed, including a type of bowl or dish
with a thin body and white surface, faintly resembling Ding ware. Traders refer to it
as yingqing because its glaze has a slight bluish tint. It is said to originate from
Jiangxi and was produced during the Song dynasty (2025).16
Additionally, because some Qingbai porcelain from Jingdezhen had a body and glaze so pure and
white that it resembled powdered snow, it was occasionally referred to as fending (粉定), or
powdered Ding ware.17
The production of Qingbai porcelain was made possible through advancements in kiln
technology and firing techniques, particularly those developed at Jingdezhen. These kilns not
only provided the high firing temperatures necessary to achieve the jade-like translucence of
Qingbai glaze but also introduced innovative methods that ensured the refinement and
consistency of the finished pieces.
Kilns / Yao (窑)
The development of kilns (窑) was fundamental to Jingdezhen’s rise as a center of
ceramic excellence. A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber or oven designed for firing ceramics,
bricks, or other materials at high temperatures to harden or transform them. In ceramic
17 Publicity Department of the Jingdezhen Municipal Committee of China. 景德镇陶瓷史话 (Historical Narratives
of Jingdezhen Porcelain), 56.
16 Zifen Liu, “竹园陶说” (On Ceramics from the Bamboo Garden). Fu Zhou Museum, accessed January 20, 2025,
https://www.fzsbwg.com/fuzhou/website/default.html?id=976&ctlgid=75. Translated by author.
15 Zhiheng Xu, 饮流斋说瓷 (The Sayings on Ceramics from Yinliu Studio). Jinan: Shandong Pictorial Publishing
House, 2010. Translated by author.
11

production, kilns are used to vitrify clay, fusing its particles to create durable and often glazed
objects. The controlled heat environment of a kiln allows for precise manipulation of materials,
enabling the creation of ceramics with specific textures, colors, and finishes. In the context of
Jingdezhen and qingbai porcelain, kilns were the technological backbone of production, offering
the high temperatures (typically around 1,200 to 1,300 degrees celsius) needed to achieve the
jade-like translucency and smooth glaze characteristic of qingbai ware (2004).18
The ceramic industry during the Song dynasty developed at an impressive pace. Kiln sites
have been discovered in 19 provinces and autonomous regions out of the 28 that make up
modern China.19 Among these, Song dynasty kiln sites account for the largest proportion,
highlighting the flourishing state of ceramics at the time.20 Furthermore, the variety of Song
ceramics was remarkably extensive, with highly diverse decorative techniques. Specifically, the
production of Qingbai porcelain in Jingdezhen was closely tied to several key kiln sites during
the Song period, each contributing to the region’s reputation as a center of ceramic excellence.
Among these, the Hutian kiln stands out as the primary producer of Qingbai porcelain, known
for its refined craftsmanship, translucent glaze, and elegant forms.21
21 Jingshu Lu, 制器尚象—宋代景德镇窑青白瓷仿生造型设计研究 (Design of Bionic White Porcelain of
Jingdezhen Kiln in Song Dynasty), Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute, 2024, 12. Translated by author.
20 Rui Cai, 宋代景德镇青白瓷刻划花装饰艺术研究 (The research of Decorative art of the Greenish White
Porcelain From Song dynasty Jingdezhen), 7.
19 Rui Cai, 宋代景德镇青白瓷刻划花装饰艺术研究 (The research of Decorative art of the Greenish White
Porcelain From Song dynasty Jingdezhen). Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute, 2016, 3. Translated by author.
18 Kerr Rose and Wood Nigel, essay, in Science and Civilisation in China, 1st ed., vol. 5 (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2004), 1–968, 13.
12

Fig 2. Hutian Ancient Kiln Site, 10th-14th century, The Palace Museum Journal.
Supporting this dominance were other significant kiln sites such as the Dragon kiln, Nanshi kiln,
Yaozhou kiln, and Xianghu kiln, which added regional diversity to Qingbai production.22 While
the Hutian kiln excelled in technical and aesthetic achievements, these secondary kilns brought
innovation and variety, contributing to the overall richness of Jingdezhen’s ceramic output.
Together, these kiln sites not only advanced Qingbai porcelain to new artistic heights but also
laid the foundation for Jingdezhen’s enduring legacy as the world’s Porcelain Capital.
22 Publicity Department of the Jingdezhen Municipal Committee of China. 景德镇陶瓷史话 (Historical Narratives
of Jingdezhen Porcelain), 181.
13

Chapter 1: Kilns
The abundant Jingdezhen kilns serve as a mandatory condition that gave birth to qingbai
porcelain. Evidence suggests that many kilns shared similarities in their types, characteristics,
and techniques of ceramic production. For instance, Xianming Feng, in his book Feng Xianming
on Song and Yuan Ceramics, mentions:
Qingbai porcelain is one of the two major ceramic systems in the Jiangnan region, with
Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province serving as its center. Under the influence of the
Jingdezhen kiln, Qingbai porcelain was successively produced in Fujian, Guangdong,
Guangxi, Zhejiang, Anhui, Hunan, and Hubei provinces. These interconnected kilns
formed a Qingbai porcelain system that had a broad regional reach and a long-lasting
legacy. To date, archaeological discoveries have identified Song dynasty Qingbai kiln
sites in 34 counties and cities across eight provinces. This indicates the popularity and
widespread appeal of Qingbai porcelain in the Jiangnan region.23
In some cases, these similarities were so pronounced that they were nearly
indistinguishable. Qingbai porcelain thus emerged as a distinct kiln system, marked by its
enduring production and extensive influence since the Song dynasty. The widespread production
and popularity of Qingbai porcelain not only reflect the public’s aesthetic preference but also
offer insight into the aesthetic trends of the Song era. Among the various kiln systems of the
Song dynasty, the Qingbai porcelain system stands out as the most expansive in influence, the
most geographically dispersed in kiln sites, and the largest in production volume.
Similarity: Competition between Kilns as a Common Topic
The competition between kilns has long been a focal point in both English and Mandarin
scholarship on Song Jingdezhen qingbai porcelain. While the two sides approach the topic from
different angles, they converge on one critical point: competition between kilns as a key driver of
23 Rui Cai, 宋代景德镇青白瓷刻划花装饰艺术研究 (The research of Decorative art of the Greenish White
Porcelain From Song dynasty Jingdezhen), 9.
14

creativity and innovation in ceramic production. This dynamic was especially significant during
the Song dynasty, where the rise of Qingbai porcelain in Jingdezhen was shaped by fierce market
competition. Both sides of literature produced two factors when reaching the above agreement:
economic drivers of competition and how these patterns motivate creativity.
Economic Drivers of Competition
The Song dynasty’s vibrant ceramics market created a fertile environment for
competition among kilns. Urbanization, economic prosperity, and the increasing sophistication of
literati culture spurred demand for high-quality ceramics. Northern kilns, such as Ding, were
renowned for their white porcelain with intricate molded designs, while southern kilns, like
Longquan, became synonymous with celadon wares featuring luminous green glazes (2023).24
Jingdezhen, however, was uniquely positioned to capitalize on this competitive environment,
benefiting from its abundant kaolin clay deposits, proximity to trade routes, and the throne
change from Northern to Southern Song.
Both Mandarin and English scholarship recognize kiln competition as a crucial driver of
innovation in Song ceramics, highlighting the relationship between technology, materials, and
aesthetics. Scholars in both traditions examine how kilns adapted to shifting tastes and market
demands, whether through technical refinement or artistic evolution. For example, Ding kilns are
widely noted for their thin, white wares, valued for their refinement, while Longquan kilns
developed celadons with subtle glaze variations. Similarly, Jingdezhen’s Qingbai porcelain is
understood as a product of both northern and southern influences, its bluish-white glaze
24 Xilong Lu et al.北宋时期景德镇准玲珑瓷香薰的工艺研究——湖田窑影青瓷向玲珑瓷之演进 (A Study on the
Craftsmanship of Quasi-Linglong Incense Burners from Jingdezhen in the Northern Song Dynasty: The Evolution
from Yingqing Porcelain to Linglong Porcelain in the Hutian Kiln), Journal of Ceramics 59, no. 12 (2023): 103.
Translated by author.
15

reflecting both material adaptability and aesthetic sophistication. The rise of Jingdezhen is
consistently framed as part of broader social and economic transformations, where technological
advancements intersected with artistic ideals.
While Mandarin-language studies often emphasize regional material conditions and
technological development, and English scholarship frequently explores cultural and aesthetic
interpretations, both perspectives converge in recognizing kiln competition as a dynamic and
multifaceted process. Across both traditions, scholars underscore the role of economic forces,
artistic preferences, and material innovation in shaping the trajectory of Song ceramics.
Patterns of Competition Foster Creativity
The rivalry among kilns was more than just a matter of market competition—it was a
catalyst for both technical innovation and artistic refinement. Across both Mandarin and English
scholarship, there is a shared recognition that kilns not only competed but also learned from one
another, refining techniques to suit local materials, market demands, and evolving aesthetic
preferences.
For instance, Qingbai porcelain’s delicate glaze is widely understood as the result of
Jingdezhen artisans building on established firing techniques while adapting them to local
resources. Scholars in both traditions acknowledge that this exchange of methods was not purely
adversarial but also fostered a spirit of continuous improvement and cross-regional influence.
The interplay between innovation and adaptation was central to the advancement of Song
ceramics. The distinctive dragon kilns (龙窑), used in the early stages of production, allowed for
large-scale firing while maintaining consistent quality.
25 Over time, the adoption of advanced
25 Jingshu Lu, 制器尚象—宋代景德镇窑青白瓷仿生造型设计研究 (Design of Bionic White Porcelain of
Jingdezhen Kiln in Song Dynasty), 13.
16

mantou kilns (馒头窑) and other innovations introduced greater control over firing conditions,
enabling the creation of Jingdezhen’s signature glazes and thin-walled porcelain.26
Fig 3. Dragon Kiln, Bloomberg China.
26 Jingshu Lu, 制器尚象—宋代景德镇窑青白瓷仿生造型设计研究 (Design of Bionic White Porcelain of
Jingdezhen Kiln in Song Dynasty), 10.
17

Fig 4. Dragon Kiln, Bloomberg China.
The literati elite’s appreciation for subtlety and restraint encouraged kilns to create
ceramics that embodied these values. Qingbai porcelain, with its thin body, translucent glaze, and
soft tones, is widely recognized as both a technical and artistic achievement, reflecting broader
cultural shifts of the Song era. Whether viewed through the lens of technological evolution or
artistic aspiration, scholars across both traditions highlight kiln competition as a driving force in
shaping the legacy of Song ceramics.
Additionally, both bodies of scholarship emphasize the impact of changing tastes,
particularly the growing preference for refined, understated aesthetics. As tastes shifted toward
refined, understated aesthetics—championed by the literati elite—kilns across China engaged in
a dynamic rivalry to meet and exceed these evolving preferences. This competition not only
spurred technical advancements but also encouraged artistic experimentation, as kilns sought to
distinguish themselves in a crowded market. For example, the Jingdezhen kilns, renowned for
their Qingbai porcelain, mastered the production of thin-bodied, translucent wares with soft
18

bluish tones, which became highly sought after for their elegance and subtlety. Similarly, the
Ding kilns in the north competed by perfecting white porcelain with intricate carved or molded
designs, showcasing their technical prowess and artistic ingenuity. These innovations were not
merely responses to demand but also reflections of broader cultural shifts during the Song era,
where simplicity and refinement were increasingly valued (2009).27 Scholars from both
literature, such as Li Zhiyan and Nigel Wood, have highlighted how this competitive
environment fostered a culture of creativity, pushing kilns to explore new techniques, glazes, and
forms.
Kilns not only facilitated the high firing temperatures required for qingbai porcelain but
also revolutionized production techniques and efficiency. Beyond their technical function, kilns
also became symbols of innovation and adaptability. The evolution of kiln structures and
practices reflects how Jingdezhen’s craftspeople responded to changing societal demands,
regional resources, and aesthetic preferences. Whether through the delicate beauty of Qingbai or
the meticulous craftsmanship of Ding ware, the legacy of Song ceramics stands as a testament to
how patterns of competition can drive artistic and technological excellence.
Differences: Technical Mastery vs. Historical Context
While English and Mandarin sources share a recognition of kiln competition as a critical
factor in the development of these qingbai ceramics, they diverge significantly in their focus.
Mandarin literature tends to emphasize the technical aspects of ceramic production, reflecting
China’s cultural tradition of associating craftsmanship with art. English sources, on the other
27 Anne Gerritsen. “Fragments of a Global Past: Ceramics Manufacture in Song-Yuan-Ming Jingdezhen.” Journal of
the Economic and Social History of the Orient 52, no. 1 (2009): 135.
19

hand, often situate kilns within a broader historical and cultural framework, catering to an
audience with less specialized knowledge of Chinese ceramics.
Cultural Differences
The divergence mentioned above can be partly attributed to cultural and educational
differences in the study of ceramics. In China, traditional art forms like ceramics are deeply
rooted in a history of technical mastery and craftsmanship. Japan, too, operates within a nuanced
conceptual framework for understanding ceramics, shaped by its own cultural vocabulary: the
distinction between geijutsu(芸術, “art” or “craft”) and bijutsu (美術, “fine art”).28 This
categorization influences how ceramics are theorized, taught, and historicized, with geijutsu
often emphasizing functional artistry and material tradition, while bijutsu leans toward aesthetic
philosophy and individual expression. Such distinctions inform academic discourse, where
Japanese scholarship might foreground the interplay of utility and beauty—as seen in Mingei
(folk craft) movements—alongside technical processes. Mandarin texts often delve into the
specifics of glaze composition, firing techniques, and kiln construction, highlighting the intricate
processes behind ceramic production. For instance, discussions of Qingbai porcelain in Mandarin
sources frequently center on innovations like the xiaobo yangshao (匣钵仰烧) firing method and
its role in achieving the translucent glaze and delicate forms that characterize these wares.
The earliest record of the xiaobo yangshao method can be found in Jiang Qi's Tao Ji (陶
记), which mentions: “Some pieces are fired upright, others inverted.”29 This description
corresponds with archaeological discoveries of inverted-fired objects and kiln tools at the Hutian
29 Qi Jiang, 陶记 (The Journal of Pottery), Historical Document, from the Chinese National Archives of Publications
and Culture. Southern Song Dynasty (accessed November 24, 2024). Translated by author.
28 Yūko Kikuchi, Japanese Modernisation and Mingei Theory: Cultural Nationalism and Oriental
Orientalism(London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), 80.
20

kiln site. The xiaobo yangshao method (匣钵仰烧法) represents a groundbreaking advancement
in ceramic firing techniques, one that had a profound and lasting impact on the ceramic industry.
This method, or “inverted firing method with saggers,” involves arranging several spacer
columns sequentially on the kiln floor. Saggers are then placed on these columns, and a small
clay disc—smaller than the foot ring of the bowl—is placed inside each sagger. The foot ring of
a bowl is then set atop the disc. These steps are repeated, stacking the saggers one on top of
another for firing (2018).30
Fig 5. Illustration of the xiaobo yangshao method, China National Porcelain Network.
Compared to the zhiding dieshao method (支钉叠烧法), or “firing with stacked
supports,” the xiaobo yangshao method offered several advantages. First, the use of saggers
shielded the ceramic body from direct exposure to flames, preventing damage and ensuring a
more consistent firing process. Second, the saggers protected the glaze surface from
30 Enda Tang, 宋代景德镇青白瓷碗器物造型特征及审美初探 (The first exploration of the characteristics and
aesthetics of Jingdezhen greenish-white bowl in Song Dynasty), Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute, 2018, 10. Translated
by author.
21

contamination by kiln ash, significantly enhancing the aesthetic quality of the finished pieces.
Third, by housing only one piece per sagger, the method minimized unglazed areas on the
ceramic surface, reducing them to a barely noticeable inner part of the foot ring.31 This was a
marked improvement over the visible marks left by the zhiding dieshao method.
In addition, the xiaobo yangshao method demonstrated remarkable cost efficiency. The
stacked saggers optimized the use of kiln space, allowing for a higher load capacity and reducing
firing costs. The use of clay discs smaller than the foot ring also ensured that the bowl’s foot
remained suspended during firing, preventing the melted glaze from fusing the foot ring to the
disc.32 This innovation made it easier to remove the finished pieces after firing, streamlining the
production process.
The xiaobo yangshao method is widely regarded as a testament to the technical ingenuity
of Song potters, and its impact on ceramic production is well-documented in Mandarin
scholarship. For example, the China National Porcelain Network provides detailed illustrations
of the method (Fig. 2), highlighting its role in achieving the delicate forms and translucent glazes
that characterize Qingbai porcelain. This focus on technical mastery underscores the cultural
importance of craftsmanship in Chinese art history, offering a stark contrast to the broader
contextual analyses often found in Western scholarship. By delving into the specifics of
techniques like xiaobo yangshao, Mandarin sources provide invaluable insights into the
innovations that drove the evolution of Song ceramics, revealing how patterns of competition
and creativity were rooted in the pursuit of technical excellence.
32 Yang, Yang, 宋代景德镇窑成型工具研究 (Research on the Shaping Tools of the Jingdezhen Kiln of the Song
Dynasty). Jingdezhen Ceramic University, 2023, 87. Translated by author.
31 Enda Tang, 宋代景德镇青白瓷碗器物造型特征及审美初探 (The first exploration of the characteristics and
aesthetics of Jingdezhen greenish-white bowl in Song Dynasty), Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute, 11.
22

The divergence in focus between Mandarin and Western scholarship can be partly
attributed to deep-seated cultural and educational differences in the study of ceramics. In China,
traditional art forms like ceramics are not merely seen as aesthetic achievements but are deeply
rooted in a history of technical mastery and craftsmanship. This perspective reflects a cultural
ethos that values the meticulous documentation and preservation of artisanal knowledge.
Mandarin texts, therefore, often prioritize the exploration of specific techniques, materials, and
processes, treating ceramic production as both an art and a science. For instance, discussions of
Qingbai porcelain in Mandarin sources frequently center on innovations like the xiaobo
yangshao firing method, meticulously detailing its role in achieving the translucent glaze and
delicate forms that define these wares.
This emphasis on technical precision is deeply ingrained in Chinese educational
traditions, where the study of ceramics often involves rigorous training in the material sciences,
chemistry, and engineering. Scholars like Li Jiazhi, in The History of Science and Technology in
China: Ceramics Volume (中国科学技术史陶瓷卷), exemplify this approach by providing
exhaustive analyses of glaze compositions, firing temperatures, and kiln constructions (1998).33
Such works highlight the intricate processes behind ceramic production, treating each technical
advancement as a critical component of cultural heritage. For example, the xiaobo yangshao
method is not merely described as a firing technique but is analyzed for its scientific principles,
such as how the use of saggers protects the ceramic body from direct flame exposure and
prevents glaze contamination.
In contrast to the technical focus of Mandarin scholarship, Western studies of Song
ceramics often situate kilns and their production within a broader historical, cultural, and
33 Jiazhi Li, History of Science and Technology in China: Ceramics Volume (中国科学技术史陶瓷卷). Beijing:
Science Press, 1998. Translated by author.
23

economic framework. This approach reflects the Western academic tradition of interdisciplinary
analysis, which seeks to understand objects not only as artifacts of craftsmanship but also as
reflections of the societies that produced them. For instance, the migration of artisans to
Jingdezhen during the Southern Song is frequently examined in English-language scholarship as
part of a larger narrative of political upheaval and regional economic shifts. This migration,
driven by the Jin’s invasion of northern China and the subsequent relocation of the Song court to
the south, is seen as a pivotal moment in the rise of Jingdezhen as a ceramic center. Scholars
such as Robert Mowry (1997) contextualize this shift within the broader socio-political
landscape of the Song dynasty, highlighting how the movement of skilled craftsmen contributed
to the diffusion of technical knowledge and the consolidation of Jingdezhen’s dominance in
ceramic production.34
Western scholarship also often explores the role of ceramics in global trade networks,
emphasizing their economic and cultural significance beyond China’s borders. John Carswell
discusses how Song ceramics, including Qingbai wares, were highly prized commodities in
maritime trade routes, linking China to markets in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and
beyond.35 This perspective underscores the interconnectedness of the Song economy with the
wider world, framing ceramics as both products of and contributors to global exchange.
Moreover, English-language studies frequently examine the cultural values embodied in Song
ceramics, particularly the influence of the literati class and their aesthetic preferences. Namely,
these literature often highlight how the literati’s emphasis on refinement and subtlety shaped the
design and production of ceramics, encouraging kilns to innovate in ways that aligned with these
35 John Carswell and Jean McClure Mudge, Blue and White: Chinese Porcelain and Its Impact on the Western World
(Chicago, Illinois: The Gallery, 1985), 23.
34 Robert D. Mowry, Eugene Farrell, and Nicole Coolidge Rousmaniere, Hare’s Fur, Tortoiseshell, and Partridge
Feathers: Chinese Brown- and Black-Glazed Ceramics, 400-1400 (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Art
Museums, 1997), 45.
24

ideals (2022).36 This focus on cultural context allows Western scholars to explore how ceramics
served as material expressions of the philosophical and artistic trends of the Song era, such as the
Daoist appreciation for naturalness and the Confucian valorization of restraint.
By framing ceramic production within these broader narratives, Western scholarship
provides a complementary perspective to the technical mastery emphasized in Mandarin sources.
Together, these approaches offer a more holistic understanding of Song ceramics, revealing how
patterns of competition and creativity were shaped by both the intricacies of craftsmanship and
the dynamic historical and cultural forces of the time.
Educational Differences
Another key factor shaping the divergence between Mandarin and English scholarship on
Chinese ceramics is the intended audience and their respective expectations. Mandarin texts are
typically written for readers who already possess a foundational understanding of Chinese
ceramic history, techniques, and cultural significance. This is largely due to the Chinese
educational system, which requires students to study all aspects of Chinese history, including the
Song dynasty, as part of the standardized curriculum for the college entrance exam (Gaokao).
Since Jingdezhen’s prominence during the Song dynasty and the production of Qingbai porcelain
are deeply intertwined with the political, economic, and cultural developments of the era, these
topics are integral to the historical knowledge expected of students. As a result, Mandarin
scholarship assumes a level of familiarity with these subjects, allowing authors to delve into
technical and historical details without extensive contextualization. This allows authors to delve
deeply into technical details without needing to extensively contextualize their importance. For
36 Patricia Buckley Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2022), 162.
25

instance, discussions of innovations like the xiaobo yangshao firing method or the chemical
composition of glazes are often presented with the assumption that readers are familiar with the
broader historical and cultural framework of Chinese ceramics. As a result, Mandarin sources
prioritize craftsmanship and innovation as the primary lens for understanding the significance of
kilns, focusing on the intricacies of production processes and the technical achievements of
potters.
This audience expectation reflects a cultural context in which ceramics are not only seen
as artistic achievements but also as embodiments of scientific and technical knowledge. For
example, detailed analyses of kiln construction, firing temperatures, and glaze formulations are
common in Mandarin scholarship, as these elements are considered essential to appreciating the
artistry and ingenuity of Chinese porcelain. Works like Li Jiazhi’s History of Science and
Technology in China: Ceramics Volume (中国科学技术史·陶瓷卷) exemplify this approach,
offering exhaustive examinations of technical advancements and their impact on ceramic
production.37 Such texts cater to an audience that values the preservation and transmission of
artisanal knowledge, viewing it as a critical component of cultural heritage.
In contrast, English-language scholarship often targets a broader, more general readership
that may overlook certain specialized knowledge of Chinese ceramics. Consequently, these texts
tend to emphasize the cultural, historical, and economic implications of ceramic production,
providing a wider context that makes the topic accessible to an international audience. For
example, English sources frequently situate kilns within global trade networks, exploring how
Chinese ceramics influenced and were influenced by interactions with other cultures. John
Carswell’s Blue and White: Chinese Porcelain and Its Impact on the Western World (1985) is a
37 Jiazhi Li, History of Science and Technology in China: Ceramics Volume (中国科学技术史陶瓷卷). Beijing:
Science Press, 1998.
26

notable example, as it examines the role of Chinese ceramics in global exchange and their
reception in foreign markets.38
Furthermore, English scholarship often explores the societal values reflected in ceramic
production, such as the influence of the literati class on aesthetic preferences or the role of
ceramics in rituals and daily life. Patricia Buckley Ebrey’s The Cambridge Illustrated History of
China (1996), for instance, discusses how the literati’s emphasis on refinement and subtlety
shaped the design and production of ceramics, linking these developments to broader
philosophical and artistic trends of the Song era.39 This approach not only makes the subject
more engaging for a general audience but also highlights the interconnectedness of ceramics with
other aspects of Chinese history and culture. In contrast to the Chinese educational system,
where the Gaokao mandates a comprehensive understanding of Chinese history—including the
Song dynasty and its cultural achievements like Qingbai porcelain—English-speaking countries
lack such standardized requirements. Therefore, English scholarship often assumes little to no
prior knowledge of Chinese history among its readers, leading to a greater emphasis on
contextualization and broader cultural narratives. Additionally, Chinese scholarship tends to
categorize texts very specifically into their corresponding disciplines, reflecting a more
compartmentalized approach to academic study. In contrast, English scholarship, particularly in
Western universities, encourages interdisciplinary thinking and arguments, allowing for a more
fluid integration of historical, cultural, and technical perspectives. This fundamental difference in
academic traditions further shapes the divergence between Mandarin and English sources, with
39 Patricia Buckley Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1996), 152–155.
38 John Carswell and Jean McClure Mudge, Blue and White: Chinese Porcelain and Its Impact on the Western World
(Chicago, Illinois: The Gallery, 1985).
27

the former focusing on precise technical and historical details, and the latter embracing a more
holistic and interconnected approach to the study of Chinese ceramics.
However, this broader focus can sometimes come at the expense of technical depth.
English texts may gloss over the intricate details of ceramic production, such as the specific
firing techniques or material compositions that Mandarin sources meticulously document. While
this makes the subject more accessible, it risks overlooking the technical ingenuity that underpins
the artistry of Chinese ceramics.
28

Chapter 2: Qingbai Porcelain
Scholarly discussions of Qingbai porcelain are abundant in both English and Mandarin
sources, yet these bodies of literature often approach the subject from different angles.
English-language scholarship tends to emphasize the cultural, aesthetic, and global trade contexts
of Qingbai porcelain, while Mandarin sources focus on the technical mastery, material science,
and regional production practices. Despite these differences, both traditions of scholarship
converge on several key points, particularly in their recognition of Qingbai porcelain as a
defining feature of Song dynasty Jingdezhen and their shared interest in the interplay between
innovation, competition, and cultural values. This chapter explores the similarities and
differences in how English and Mandarin sources analyze Qingbai porcelain, highlighting the
complementary nature of these perspectives and their contributions to a more comprehensive
understanding of this important ceramic tradition.
Similarity: Qingbai porcelain’s technical and cultural significance, driven by kiln competition
Recognition of Qingbai Porcelain as a Defining Feature of Song Jingdezhen
Both English and Mandarin sources universally acknowledged Qingbai porcelain as a
hallmark of Song dynasty Jingdezhen, emphasizing its profound cultural and aesthetic
significance. English scholar Regina Krahl, in her work Chinese Ceramics from the Meiyintang
Collection (1994), describes Qingbai porcelain as “a harmonious blend of form and function,
embodying the refined tastes of the Song elite.”40 This perspective highlights the delicate beauty
and artistic sophistication of Qingbai porcelain, framing it as an artistic achievement that
captured the aesthetic ideals of the Song era. Similarly, Chinese scholar Li Zhiyan, in his
Mandarin publication The Art of Chinese Ceramics, underscores the cultural importance of
40 Regina Krahl, Chinese Ceramics from the Meiyintang Collection. (Vol 1, 1994).
29

Qingbai porcelain, noting how its bluish-white glaze and elegant forms resonated with the
philosophical and artistic values of the Song dynasty. Li emphasizes that Qingbai porcelain was
not merely a functional object but a cultural symbol that reflected the literati’s pursuit of
harmony and refinement (2010).41
Moreover, Mandarin and English literature agree that Qingbai porcelain was a cultural
phenomenon that transcended its utilitarian purpose, embodying the broader intellectual and
artistic currents of the Song dynasty. Craig Clunas, professor of Asian history at the University
of Oxford, explores how Qingbai porcelain embodied the Confucian ideals of simplicity and
restraint in his work, linking its aesthetic qualities to the philosophical and cultural trends of the
era in his work Empire of Great Brightness (2012). Clunas notes that the understated elegance of
Qingbai porcelain, with its translucent glaze and delicate forms, mirrored the literati’s
appreciation for subtlety and understatement.42 Mandarin texts, while often more focused on
technical details, also celebrate the cultural significance of Qingbai porcelain. Scholars such as
Zhang Pusheng highlights how the aesthetic qualities of Qingbai porcelain were deeply
intertwined with the artistic and philosophical aspirations of the Song dynasty, making it a
symbol of cultural sophistication and artistic achievement.43 This dual focus on technical mastery
and cultural meaning positions Qingbai porcelain as a symbol of both artistic achievement and
cultural sophistication, embodying the intellectual and aesthetic aspirations of one of China’s
most celebrated historical periods. In this way, Mandarin sources complement English
scholarship by weaving together the material and philosophical dimensions of Qingbai porcelain,
offering a holistic understanding of its enduring legacy.
43 Zhang Pusheng, 青花瓷器鉴定 (Blue and White Porcelain Authentication), (Beijing: Beijing Library Publishing
House, 1995), 108. Translated by author.
42 Craig Clunas, Empire of Great Brightness: Visual and Material Cultures of Ming China, 1368-1644 (London:
Reaktion Books, 2012), 154.
41 Li Zhiyan et al., 中国陶瓷艺术 (The Art of Chinese Ceramics), vol. 1 (Beijing, Beijing : Wenwu Press, 2010), 54.
Translated by author.
30

Another shared similarity across both discourse is the recognition of Qingbai porcelain as
a reflection of the Song dynasty’s societal values and aesthetic preferences. English sources often
emphasize the role of Qingbai porcelain in expressing the tastes and status of the literati class,
who valued its refined beauty and subtle glazes as markers of cultural refinement. For instance,
Jessica Rawson supports this perspective in Chinese Ornament: The Lotus and the Dragon,
which discusses how the minimalist designs and soft tones of Qingbai porcelain aligned with the
literati’s preference for understated elegance.44 Similar sentiments are echoed in Mandarin texts,
where the porcelain’s luminous glaze and delicate forms captured the essence of Song dynasty
artistry, reflecting the era’s emphasis on natural beauty and harmony (2008).45
By integrating technical, artistic, and philosophical insights, both English and Mandarin
scholarship reveal Qingbai porcelain as a multifaceted cultural artifact. Its production was not
only a testament to the technical ingenuity of Song Dynasty potters—evidenced by innovations
in high-fired glazes and kiln structures—but also a reflection of the era’s broader intellectual and
artistic currents, such as the literati’s pursuit of simplicity and harmony. This dual focus on
craftsmanship and cultural meaning underscores the profound significance of Qingbai porcelain
as a symbol of the Song Dynasty’s artistic and philosophical ideals. Building on this
understanding, the next section will explore how both English and Mandarin sources converge
on the interplay between technology and aesthetics, examining how technical advancements
enabled the creation of Qingbai porcelain’s distinctive beauty and how this relationship continues
to shape scholarly interpretations of its legacy.
Shared Interest in the Interplay Between Technology and Aesthetics
45 Bai Zhang, 中国出土瓷器全集 (The Complete Collection of Chinese Ceramics), (Beijing, Beijing: China Science
Publishing & Media, 2008), 344. Translated by author.
44 Jessica Rawson, Chinese Ornament: The Lotus and the Dragon (London: Published for the Trustees of the British
Museum by British Museum Publications, 1984).
31

The interdisciplinary nature of ceramic studies, combined with a global interest in the
integration of art and science, fosters a shared focus on the interplay between technology and
aesthetics in Qingbai porcelain production. Ceramics, as a field, inherently bridges art, history,
archaeology, and materials science, requiring scholars to examine both the visual and cultural
significance of objects as well as the technical processes behind their creation. This
multidisciplinary approach is evident in both English and Mandarin scholarly works, as seen in
Nigel Wood’s analysis of high-fired glazes in Chinese Glazes and Ye Zhemin’s exploration of
glaze chemistry in An Introduction to the Science of Ancient Chinese Ceramics. These studies
highlight how technological advancements, such as the refinement of kiln structures and the
precise control of firing conditions, enabled the aesthetic achievements of Qingbai porcelain,
including its iconic translucent, bluish-white glaze. The global fascination with the relationship
between art and science further reinforces this convergence, as Qingbai porcelain serves as a
compelling case study for how human creativity and scientific ingenuity intersect. Scholars in
both traditions recognize that the beauty of Qingbai porcelain is not merely an artistic
accomplishment but also a testament to the technical mastery of Song Dynasty potters, reflecting
a broader appreciation for the ways in which innovation enhances artistic expression. This shared
emphasis on the synergy between technology and aesthetics underscores the universal relevance
of Qingbai porcelain as a symbol of cultural and scientific achievement.
The convergence of English and Mandarin scholarly perspectives is also shaped by
increased cultural exchange and collaboration, as well as an understanding of the historical
context and market dynamics that drove Qingbai porcelain production. In recent decades, the
study of Qingbai porcelain has benefited from cross-cultural dialogue, with English-language
scholars drawing on Mandarin sources to deepen their understanding of Chinese ceramic
32

traditions, and Mandarin scholars engaging with Western methodologies and theoretical
frameworks. This exchange of ideas fosters a shared emphasis on the interplay between
technology and aesthetics, as both traditions recognize the value of integrating diverse
perspectives to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of Qingbai porcelain. Additionally,
scholars in both languages acknowledge the historical context of Qingbai production, particularly
the competitive market dynamics of the Song Dynasty. The demand for high-quality ceramics,
both domestically and for export, pushed potters to refine their techniques and innovate, creating
a direct link between technological advancements and aesthetic excellence. By examining these
historical and economic factors, scholars highlight how practical considerations, such as meeting
market demands and outperforming rival kilns, drove the artistic and technical achievements of
Qingbai porcelain. Together, these factors—cultural exchange, interdisciplinary collaboration,
and historical context—create a coherent framework for understanding why English and
Mandarin sources converge on the relationship between technology and aesthetics in the study of
Qingbai porcelain.
Differences: English texts emphasize societal values and global trade, while Mandarin texts
focus on technical mastery and regional production
The study of Qingbai porcelain reveals distinct yet complementary perspectives in
English and Mandarin scholarship, shaped by differing cultural priorities, methodological
approaches, and access to historical sources. English-language scholarship often emphasizes the
cultural, aesthetic, and global dimensions of Qingbai porcelain, framing it as a reflection of Song
Dynasty societal values and a key player in early global trade networks. Scholars such as Patricia
Ebrey and Robert Finlay explore its understated elegance and widespread influence, situating
Qingbai porcelain within broader narratives of art history and economic exchange. In contrast,
33

Mandarin scholarship tends to focus on the technical mastery and regional production processes
behind Qingbai porcelain, drawing on primary sources, archaeological evidence, and detailed
material analyses. These differences in focus—between global narratives and technical precision,
between art and craft—underscore the unique contributions of each scholarly tradition.
Art vs. Craft: An Ongoing Debate
The distinction between art and craft has long been a subject of debate, particularly in
cross-cultural scholarship. This divide is especially pronounced in discussions of Qingbai
porcelain, a hallmark of Song Dynasty ceramic production. The way Qingbai is categorized in
English and Mandarin scholarship reveals deeper cultural perspectives on artistic value,
craftsmanship, and intellectual labor.
In China, Qingbai porcelain is generally classified as a craft rather than an art form,
reflecting a tradition that places technical skill and material mastery at the forefront. This
emphasis on craftsmanship is deeply rooted in Confucian social hierarchy, where artisans (gong,
工) were traditionally ranked below scholars (shi, 士), whose work was associated with
intellectual and literary pursuits. This distinction is evident in texts like 陶记 (Records of
Ceramics), which refer to Jingdezhen potters as “craftspeople” rather than “artists.”46 The choice
of terminology reinforces the idea that ceramic production is a labor-intensive and technically
demanding process, one tied to cultural heritage rather than individual artistic expression.
Chinese art theory has historically placed greater value on calligraphy and
painting—forms closely linked to literati culture—while ceramics, even those admired by the
elite, were seen as functional objects rather than expressions of personal creativity. While
46 Qi Jiang, 陶记 (The Journal of Pottery), Historical Document, from the Chinese National Archives of Publications
and Culture. Southern Song Dynasty.
34

Qingbai porcelain shares the refined aesthetic sensibilities of the Song literati, it remained a
product of workshop traditions rather than individual artistic authorship. The Chinese perspective
thus tends to see Qingbai not as “art” in the Western sense but as an exceptional example of
craftsmanship, worthy of preservation and admiration.In contrast, English-language scholarship
often situates Qingbai within the realm of fine art, focusing on its aesthetic refinement, symbolic
meaning, and ties to elite taste. In the Western tradition, particularly following the Renaissance
and the Romantic movement, art has been defined by individual expression and aesthetic
intentionality. Scholars like Jessica Rawson highlight the elegance and minimalist beauty of
Qingbai porcelain, framing it as a reflection of the literati’s preference for restraint and subtlety.
47
From this perspective, Qingbai is not just a well-crafted object but a sophisticated artistic
achievement, embodying the refined ideals of Song Dynasty aesthetics.
This difference in perception is also shaped by cultural familiarity. In China, porcelain
has been a ubiquitous presence for centuries, woven into daily life and cultural traditions. The
sheer abundance of ceramic production, from imperial kilns to common household ware, has
made porcelain a deeply integrated aspect of material culture. Because of this, Qingbai is often
viewed within the domain of craftsmanship—an extraordinary example of skill and heritage but
not necessarily something that transcends its functional or decorative role. In the Western
context, however, porcelain has historically carried an air of rarity and exoticism. When Chinese
ceramics first entered Europe through trade routes in the 16th and 17th centuries, they were
considered luxury goods, admired for their delicate translucency and impossible perfection.48
The mystique of porcelain—once called “white gold” in Europe—contributed to its artistic
48 Robert Finlay. The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History, 155.
47 Jessica Rawson, Chinese Ornament: The Lotus and the Dragon (London: Published for the Trustees of the British
Museum by British Museum Publications, 1984).
35

elevation in Western discourse (2020).49 Without the same long-standing, embedded familiarity
that exists in China, Qingbai porcelain in the West has been more readily framed as a work of art,
analyzed for its aesthetic qualities and cultural significance rather than primarily its
craftsmanship.
Such a difference in classification extends beyond academic discourse into museum
curation and market valuation. In China, Qingbai porcelain is often exhibited alongside
lacquerware, jade carvings, and textiles—grouped as part of the applied arts rather than the fine
arts. By contrast, Western institutions like the British Museum and the Metropolitan Museum of
Art frequently present Qingbai as an artistic masterpiece, emphasizing its formal beauty and
cultural significance.
Fig 6. Northern Song Dynasty Qingbai-glazed Ewer and Warming Bowl with Stand, Weibo.
49 Suzanne L Marchand, Porcelain: A History from the Heart of Europe. 1st ed, (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 2020), 3.
36

Fig 7. Bowl (one of a pair), Porcelain with carved decoration under bluish glaze (Qingbai ware), Diam. 5 1/2 in. (14
cm), 10th–11th century, the MET.
At its core, this debate reflects broader differences in how art is conceptualized across
cultures. While Mandarin scholarship tends to highlight the technical mastery and collective
nature of Qingbai production, Western scholarship often elevates it as an autonomous work of
art. Neither perspective is necessarily right or wrong—rather, they offer different lenses through
which to understand Qingbai porcelain, not just as an object of beauty or technical skill, but as a
cultural artifact shaped by distinct intellectual traditions.
Access to Historical Data: Primary Sources and Translation Challenges
The study of Qingbai porcelain is deeply shaped by the availability of historical data and
primary sources, a factor that creates a notable divide between Mandarin and English-language
scholarship. Mandarin texts draw from an extensive array of historical records, technical
manuals, and archaeological discoveries, offering granular insights into the production
techniques and material science behind Qingbai porcelain. Take, for instance, 陶记 (Records of
Ceramics), a Song Dynasty text attributed to Jiang Qi, which provides a firsthand account of kiln
37

practices, including the use of saggers (protective ceramic boxes) and the xiaobo yangshao (小薄
窑烧) method, a groundbreaking technique for controlling firing temperatures and atmospheric
conditions.50 These primary sources empower Mandarin scholars to conduct meticulous technical
analyses, as seen in Liu Xinyuan’s 宋元芒口瓷器与覆烧工艺研究 (Research on Song and Yuan
Dynasty Unglazed Rim Porcelain and Firing Techniques), which delves into the chemical
makeup of glazes and the evolution of kiln designs (1974).51 Archaeological excavations, such as
those at the Hutian kilns in Jingdezhen, have further enriched this body of knowledge by
unearthing thousands of Qingbai porcelain fragments, offering tangible evidence that
corroborates historical accounts. This direct engagement with primary materials allows Mandarin
scholarship to present an unparalleled level of detail on the craftsmanship and innovation that
defined Qingbai porcelain.
English-language scholarship, on the other hand, often operates at a remove from these
primary sources, relying instead on translated texts and secondary interpretations. This distance
can lead to gaps in technical understanding and occasional misrepresentations. For example,
translating specialized terms like xiaobo yangshao (小薄窑烧) or underglaze red (釉里红) risks
losing the precision of the original language, particularly when describing intricate chemical
processes or firing techniques. As a result, English-language discussions of Qingbai glaze
compositions sometimes oversimplify or mischaracterize the role of iron oxide impurities in
creating the bluish-white tint. Moreover, English scholars frequently depend on secondary
interpretations of primary texts, which may not fully capture the technical depth of the originals.
Robert Finlay’s The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History, while offering a
51 Xinyuan Liu, 宋元芒口瓷器与覆烧工艺研究 (Research on Song and Yuan Dynasty Unglazed Rim Porcelain and
Firing Techniques), CNWIKI, no. 6 (1974): 4. Translated by author.
50 Qi Jiang, 陶记 (The Journal of Pottery), Historical Document, from the Chinese National Archives of Publications
and Culture. Southern Song Dynasty.
38

compelling narrative on Qingbai porcelain’s global trade, lacks the granular technical analysis
found in Mandarin works like 中国古陶瓷研究 (Studies on Ancient Chinese Ceramics). This
reliance on translation and secondary sources highlights the limitations English-language
scholarship faces in accessing and interpreting primary materials.
The disparities in access to historical data reveal the critical need for cross-linguistic
collaboration in the study of Qingbai porcelain. By merging the technical expertise of Mandarin
scholars with the global and contextual perspectives of English-language researchers, a more
holistic understanding of Qingbai porcelain can emerge. Collaborative initiatives, such as those
between Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute and Western universities, exemplify the potential of such
partnerships. These projects integrate Mandarin primary sources with English-language analyses,
yielding insights that bridge the gap between technical precision and cultural interpretation.
Efforts like these not only address the challenges posed by translation but also ensure that the
nuances of Qingbai porcelain’s production and legacy are accurately conveyed in global
scholarship.
Regional Priorities: Cultural Heritage versus Global Narratives
The study and interpretation of Qingbai porcelain reveal striking differences between
Mandarin and English-language scholarship, shaped by distinct cultural and academic priorities.
In Mandarin discourse, the emphasis lies heavily on preserving and perpetuating traditional
ceramic techniques, reflecting a broader commitment to safeguarding China’s artistic heritage.
This approach aligns with national initiatives aimed at protecting intangible cultural heritage,
ensuring that centuries-old practices remain integral to contemporary understanding and
production. For instance, the study of Qingbai porcelain is deeply embedded in the curriculum of
Chinese art history, with a focus on its technical processes, kiln methods, and regional variations.
39

Chinese scholars often situate Qingbai within a lineage of ceramic craftsmanship, connecting it
to earlier Tang white wares and later Yuan blue-and-white porcelain. This historical continuity
reinforces the notion that ceramics are not merely aesthetic objects but part of an evolving
artisanal tradition. By prioritizing documentation, conservation, and the transmission of
techniques, Mandarin scholarship frames Qingbai as a living tradition rather than a static relic of
the past.
This perspective is further reinforced by China’s cultural and educational policies, which
highlight the role of traditional art forms in shaping national identity. Government-backed
initiatives, such as UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage designations and local heritage
preservation programs, have institutionalized the study of historical ceramics, positioning them
as central to China’s narrative of artistic and technological achievement.52 Within this
framework, Qingbai porcelain is frequently discussed in terms of its craftsmanship, regional kiln
sites, and the technical skills required for its production. Such discussions underscore the
collective labor and mastery behind its creation, emphasizing the human and cultural dimensions
of ceramic art.
In contrast, English-language scholarship tends to adopt a more analytical and theoretical
approach, often situating Qingbai porcelain within a global art historical context. Rather than
concentrating on technical processes, Western scholars frequently explore Qingbai’s aesthetic
qualities, cultural symbolism, and its role in global trade and artistic exchange. This approach
reflects a different set of academic priorities—one that seeks to contextualize Qingbai not only
within Chinese history but also within transnational networks of material culture. For example,
English-language scholars often examine how Qingbai porcelain was exported to regions such as
52 UNESCO, “UNESCO - China,” Intangible Cultural Heritage, accessed February 3, 2025,
https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/china-CN?info=elements-on-the-lists.
40

Japan, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East, influencing local ceramic traditions and
consumption patterns. Its ethereal translucence, soft blue-green glaze, and elegant forms are
analyzed through an art historical lens that prioritizes aesthetic appreciation and cross-cultural
influence. Some scholars also interpret Qingbai within the framework of global luxury goods,
drawing parallels with contemporaneous traditions such as Islamic lusterware or European
proto-porcelain experiments. By highlighting these global interactions, English-language
research expands the significance of Qingbai beyond its immediate cultural and geographical
origins, presenting it as an artistic achievement with worldwide resonance.
The divergence in scholarly focus—rooted in heritage preservation on one hand and
global discourse on the other—stems from broader differences in educational frameworks and
intellectual traditions. Chinese scholarship, influenced by Confucian values of historical
continuity and technical mastery, places greater importance on craft lineage and the transmission
of artisanal knowledge. Western academic traditions, shaped by post-Enlightenment critical
theory, often prioritize comparative analysis, theoretical frameworks, and interdisciplinary
connections. These differing approaches, while distinct, ultimately enrich the study of Qingbai
porcelain, offering complementary perspectives that deepen our understanding of its cultural,
technical, and global significance.
The analysis of Qingbai porcelain in both English and Mandarin sources reveals a rich
tapestry of perspectives, each contributing to a deeper understanding of this iconic ceramic
tradition. While English literature emphasizes the cultural and aesthetic significance of Qingbai
porcelain, Mandarin sources provide invaluable technical insights into its production processes.
Together, these perspectives offer a holistic view of Qingbai porcelain, highlighting its
importance as both a technical achievement and a cultural symbol of the Song Dynasty. The
41

complementary nature of these two bodies of literature underscores the importance of
cross-linguistic and interdisciplinary approaches in the study of Chinese ceramics, ensuring a
more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of this important artistic tradition.
This exploration of Qingbai porcelain’s cultural and technical dimensions naturally leads
to an examination of its role in global trade, a topic that further bridges English and Mandarin
scholarship. Both traditions recognize the significance of Qingbai porcelain as a commodity that
transcended China’s borders, influencing ceramic production and cultural exchange across Asia
and beyond. However, English and Mandarin sources often approach the topic of global trade
from different angles—English scholarship tends to emphasize the economic and cultural impact
of Qingbai porcelain in foreign markets, while Mandarin texts focus on its production and
distribution within the context of China’s domestic and international trade networks. The next
chapter will delve into these similarities and differences, exploring how English and Mandarin
sources interpret the global trade of Qingbai porcelain and what these interpretations reveal
about its historical and cultural significance.
42

Chapter 3: Global Trade
Divergent Scholarly Approaches to Qingbai Porcelain Trade
The global trade of Song Dynasty Qingbai porcelain reveals a striking divide between
Mandarin and English-language scholarship, with almost no overlap in their approaches or focus.
This divergence stems from differing cultural contexts, research priorities, and access to sources,
resulting in Mandarin texts concentrating on regional trade and domestic production, while
English-language scholarship emphasizes global trade networks and international influence.
Mandarin sources predominantly highlight the cultural and historical significance of Qingbai
porcelain within China, framing it as a product of domestic craftsmanship and regional kiln
practices. Discussions of trade in these texts are largely confined to regional exchanges, such as
the distribution of Qingbai wares within China or their influence on neighboring regions like
Korea and Japan. For instance, studies on the Hutian kiln site in Jingdezhen often emphasize
local production techniques and regional distribution networks that sustained the porcelain
industry during the Song Dynasty. This focus aligns with broader national efforts to preserve and
promote traditional Chinese art forms, underscoring the continuity of craftsmanship and the
cultural heritage embodied in Qingbai porcelain. Consequently, Mandarin scholarship rarely
explores the global trade dynamics that English-language texts frequently address.
English-language scholarship, by contrast, places significant emphasis on Qingbai
porcelain’s role in global trade, situating it within the broader context of economic and cultural
exchange during the Song Dynasty. Scholars such as Robert Finlay and John Carswell analyze
how Qingbai porcelain became a highly sought-after commodity in international markets,
particularly in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and beyond. These studies highlight the
extensive trade networks that connected China to distant regions, illustrating how Qingbai
43

porcelain influenced local ceramic traditions and consumption patterns. Archaeological findings
of Qingbai shards in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Egypt provide tangible evidence of its
widespread trade and cultural impact. English-language texts often interpret these findings
through the lens of globalization, emphasizing the economic and cultural significance of Qingbai
porcelain as a driver of cross-cultural exchange.
The lack of overlap between Mandarin and English-language scholarship on this topic
can be attributed to several factors. Mandarin scholars often prioritize the preservation and
promotion of traditional practices, focusing on the technical and artistic aspects of Qingbai
porcelain rather than its role in global trade. This focus reflects a cultural and educational
framework that values the transmission of artisanal knowledge and the celebration of China’s
artistic heritage. In contrast, English-language scholars, influenced by post-Enlightenment
critical theory and interdisciplinary approaches, are more likely to explore the global dimensions
of Qingbai porcelain, situating it within narratives of economic history, globalization, and
cross-cultural interaction.
Access to sources further shapes these divergent perspectives. Mandarin scholarship may
face limitations in accessing primary sources that document international trade, as many
historical records focus on domestic production and regional distribution. This lack of accessible
evidence can hinder comprehensive analyses of global trade patterns. Conversely,
English-language scholars often draw on a wider range of resources, including archaeological
findings from international sites, foreign trade records, and comparative studies of global
ceramic traditions. This broader access enables them to construct detailed narratives of Qingbai
porcelain’s role in global trade, which are largely absent in Mandarin texts.
44

Recent trends in scholarship further underscore this divide. As global interest in Chinese
ceramics has grown, English-language texts have increasingly addressed the topic of global
trade, reflecting a broader academic emphasis on transnational connections and cultural
exchange. Mandarin sources, however, have been slower to adapt to this trend, possibly due to
entrenched scholarly traditions that prioritize internal developments over global discussions.
While some Mandarin scholars have begun to explore the international dimensions of Qingbai
porcelain, these efforts remain limited compared to the extensive body of English-language
literature on the subject.
In summary, the study of global trade in Song Dynasty Qingbai porcelain reveals a stark
contrast between Mandarin and English-language scholarship. While Mandarin texts focus on
regional trade and domestic craftsmanship, English-language scholarship emphasizes global
trade networks and cross-cultural influence. This divergence reflects deeper differences in
cultural context, research priorities, and access to sources, highlighting the need for greater
cross-linguistic collaboration to bridge these gaps. By integrating the regional focus of Mandarin
scholarship with the global perspectives of English-language research, a more comprehensive
understanding of Qingbai porcelain’s historical and cultural significance can be achieved.
45

Conclusion
This thesis examines the divergent approaches of English and Mandarin scholarship in
the study of Qingbai porcelain, a defining ceramic tradition of the Song Dynasty (960–1279)
from Jingdezhen, China. By analyzing the cultural, technical, and global dimensions of Qingbai
porcelain, the study reveals how these two bodies of literature—shaped by distinct cultural
priorities, research methodologies, and access to sources—offer complementary yet often
contrasting perspectives. The research bridges the gap between these traditions, providing a more
holistic understanding of Qingbai porcelain’s historical, artistic, and technological significance.
Key Findings and Contributions
Mandarin scholarship emphasizes the technical mastery, regional production processes,
and cultural heritage of Qingbai porcelain, often treating ceramics as a craft rather than an art
form. This approach aligns with China’s cultural and educational policies, which prioritize the
transmission of artisanal knowledge and the celebration of national heritage. Mandarin scholars
provide detailed analyses of glaze compositions, firing techniques, and kiln structures,
highlighting the intricate processes behind Qingbai production. In contrast, English-language
scholarship focuses on the aesthetic qualities, cultural symbolism, and global trade networks of
Qingbai porcelain. These scholars situate Qingbai within broader narratives of art history,
economic exchange, and cross-cultural influence, often framing it as a luxury commodity and
artistic achievement with worldwide resonance.
Despite these differences, both traditions converge on several key themes. One shared
focus is the role of kiln competition as a driving force behind the technical and artistic
advancements of Qingbai porcelain. Researchers in both languages highlight how economic
pressures, shifting market demands, and regional rivalries spurred innovations in glaze
46

composition, firing techniques, and kiln structures. For instance, the development of the xiaobo
yangshao firing method, which allowed for precise control of firing conditions, is celebrated in
Mandarin sources for its technical ingenuity, while English-language texts often interpret such
innovations as responses to global market demands. This interplay between technology and
aesthetics underscores how practical considerations and artistic ideals shaped the evolution of
Qingbai porcelain.
However, the two traditions diverge significantly in their treatment of global trade.
Mandarin sources rarely address global trade, focusing instead on regional distribution networks
and domestic production. This reflects a scholarly tradition that prioritizes local craftsmanship
and cultural heritage over international market dynamics. For example, studies on the Hutian kiln
site in Jingdezhen emphasize local production techniques and regional distribution networks,
aligning with broader national efforts to preserve traditional art forms. In contrast,
English-language scholarship emphasizes Qingbai porcelain’s role in global trade, exploring its
influence on ceramic traditions in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and beyond. Archaeological
findings of Qingbai shards in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Egypt provide tangible evidence of
its widespread trade and cultural impact, which English-language texts interpret through the lens
of globalization.
The distinction between art and craft is another recurring theme in the study of Qingbai
porcelain, reflecting broader cultural differences in how artistic value is conceptualized.
Mandarin scholarship, rooted in Confucian values, tends to view ceramics as a craft,
emphasizing technical skill and collective labor. This perspective is reflected in historical texts
that often describe Jingdezhen potters as “craftspeople” rather than “artists,” emphasizing their
technical skill and collective labor over individual artistic expression. In contrast,
47

English-language scholarship often elevates Qingbai to the status of art, focusing on its aesthetic
refinement and symbolic meaning. The elegance and minimalist beauty of Qingbai porcelain is
often highlighted, framed as the literati’s preference for restraint and subtlety. This divergence
reflects deeper cultural attitudes toward the role of artisans and the categorization of artistic
labor.
Access to historical data further shapes these divergent perspectives. Mandarin texts
benefit from direct access to primary sources, such as kiln records and technical manuals,
enabling detailed analyses of production techniques. English-language scholarship, however,
often relies on translated texts and secondary sources, which can lead to gaps in technical
knowledge and occasional misinterpretations. This disparity underscores the importance of
cross-linguistic collaboration to bridge these gaps and ensure a more accurate and comprehensive
understanding of Qingbai porcelain. Collaborative initiatives between Mandarin and
English-speaking scholars, such as joint research projects and translations of primary sources, are
essential for integrating technical expertise with global perspectives.
Regional priorities and global narratives also play a significant role in shaping these
scholarly traditions. Mandarin scholarship prioritizes the preservation of regional traditions and
the documentation of Jingdezhen’s role as a center of ceramic excellence. This focus aligns with
national efforts to safeguard intangible cultural heritage and promote traditional art forms.
English-language scholarship, by contrast, adopts a global perspective, situating Qingbai
porcelain within transnational networks of trade and cultural exchange. This approach reflects
Western academic traditions that emphasize interdisciplinary analysis and the interconnectedness
of global histories.
48

Future Implications
This thesis demonstrates that while English and Mandarin scholarship on Qingbai
porcelain diverge in their focus and methodologies, they offer complementary insights that
enrich our understanding of this iconic ceramic tradition. By integrating the technical precision
and regional focus of Mandarin sources with the global and contextual perspectives of
English-language research, the study provides a more nuanced and comprehensive framework
for analyzing Qingbai porcelain. This approach not only highlights the artistry and craftsmanship
of Song Dynasty ceramics but also underscores their significance as cultural and economic
artifacts in a global context.
While this analysis centers on the Song period, its findings implicitly challenge
Eurocentric art historical narratives that divorce technical mastery from cultural meaning—a
tension magnified in modern museum contexts. The global circulation of qingbai ware, initially
propelled by Song maritime trade, later became entangled with colonial-era extraction and
collecting practices that obscured Jingdezhen’s authorship, reducing its output to anonymized
“Chinese porcelain” in Western institutions. Though beyond this study’s scope, future research
could trace how colonial legacies and museological frameworks continue to mediate access to
Jingdezhen’s history, from the looting of kiln sites during the Opium Wars to contemporary
debates over repatriation and display. By uniting technical and transnational perspectives, this
project not only recenters Jingdezhen’s artisans as agents of both innovation and intercultural
dialogue but also calls for scholarship to confront the enduring power dynamics that shape
porcelain’s narrative—in the Song Dynasty and beyond.
The research also calls for greater cross-cultural collaboration in the study of Chinese
ceramics, emphasizing the need to translate and disseminate Mandarin sources to a wider
49

audience. By fostering dialogue between these scholarly traditions, future studies can further
illuminate the historical, technical, and cultural dimensions of Qingbai porcelain, ensuring its
legacy is appreciated in both local and global contexts. Ultimately, this thesis contributes to the
broader field of art history and material culture, offering a model for integrating diverse
perspectives to achieve a deeper understanding of cultural heritage.
50

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53

Appendices
Appendix A: A Comparison of Mandarin and English (Translated by Author) Text
Mandarin (original text) English (translated)
“地域性差别导致了景德镇窑和耀州窑在
装饰风格上的不同。而两地的民俗又导
致其在装饰上的异同。陶瓷用品属于民间
艺术当中的实用器物类。民间艺术是民
俗文化的一个分支，与人们的社会生活关
系甚密。千百年来，民间艺术的创作，一
直都伴随着各种民俗活动来完成。各个国
家、民族，各个地区，因历史文化、地理环
境的差异，民俗民风往往各具特色。有的
远隔千里却相似，有的数里之遥而相异。
景德镇窑和耀州窑就有此特征。虽有千里
之隔，但象征富贵吉祥的牡丹花纹、
洁傲仙逸的菊纹，被文人誉为‘出淤泥而
不染，濯清涟而不妖’的莲荷纹，以及梅
花、忍冬等植物类纹饰；还有寓意夫妻恩
爱的鸳鸯纹、象征长寿的鹤纹、极具生
活气息的鸭、鹅、鱼、鸿雁等动物纹样
都被广泛的应用到各自的陶瓷装饰中。正
是因为二者在传承过程中保留了具有共
时共生性的信仰或宗教内容，才使得他们
在表现形式上相同或相似。
然而，两窑又结合了各自地域的民风民俗
，在装饰风格上又有着不尽相同之处。景
德镇窑的装饰线条纤细流畅，艺术风格优
雅恬静，表现了理性内敛的个性。耀州窑
则相对粗犷、浓烈、奔放，体现了北方人
豪爽不羁的性格。除了工艺上的制约外，
这应该是不同地域民俗个性差异的表
现。这一点从姐妹艺术便可窥见一斑。以
宋代山水画为例，范宽的作品最能代表北
方绘画的特点： ‘范宽山川浑厚，有河朔气
象。瑞雪满山，动有千里之远。寒林孤秀
，挺然自立，物态严凝，俨然三冬在目。 ’
而南方画派最为乐道的当属米芾。他‘米
Regional differences led to distinct
decorative styles in Jingdezhen Kiln and
Yaozhou Kiln, while local folk customs
further shaped both their similarities and
differences. Ceramics, as practical items in
folk art, are closely tied to daily life. For
thousands of years, folk art has evolved
alongside cultural traditions. Different
regions, shaped by unique histories and
environments, developed their own
customs—some similar despite vast
distances, others starkly different even when
neighboring.
Jingdezhen and Yaozhou Kilns reflect this
pattern. Though geographically far apart,
both used motifs like peonies (symbolizing
wealth), chrysanthemums (representing
purity), lotus flowers (praised as ‘unstained
by mud, unadorned by clear water’), plum
blossoms, and honeysuckle. Animal
designs—mandarin ducks (for marital love),
cranes (longevity), and ducks, geese, and
fish (everyday charm)—were also common.
These shared motifs stem from similar
cultural and religious influences over time.
Yet, each kiln blended local traditions into
their designs. Jingdezhen’s decorations
feature delicate, flowing lines and a calm
elegance, reflecting a reserved southern
aesthetic. Yaozhou’s style, meanwhile, is
bold and energetic, mirroring northern
China’s straightforward spirit. Beyond
technical differences, this contrast echoes
broader regional identities. For example,
Song Dynasty landscape paintings show
similar divides: Fan Kuan’s northern works
depict vast snowy mountains and stark
forests, embodying grandeur, while Mi Fu’s
54

点山水’的画风特别适宜表现江南那种‘春
雨初霁，江上诸山云气涨漫，风岭出没，
林树隐见’的情景。地理环境导致了南北
方人们性格的差异。而这种差异则是以艺
术的方式体现在民间文化领域。”
southern “dot-style” paintings capture misty
Jiangnan scenes after spring rain, with
half-hidden peaks and trees. Geography
shaped these artistic differences, embedding
regional character into folk culture.
55

Appendix B: A Comparison of English and Mandarin (Translated by Author) Text
English (original text) Mandarin (translated)
“The texts discussed here have revealed a
variety of perceptions of Jingdezhen: as a
site suspended in administrative space, as a
backdrop for long-suffering servants of an
uncaring ruler, as a production site of vulgar
wares in gaudy colors, as a gathering point
for merchants, and as a crucial node in a
mercantile network. Most striking
throughout these texts, however, is the
almost complete absence of references to
connections beyond the Chinese realm.
Despite the fact that the ceramic wares
manufactured in Raozhou were exported
throughout the area and beyond, and despite
the local awareness of the presence of
traders from beyond the four seas, as
recorded by early Qing magistrate Chen Yu,
Jingdezhen appears as a locally embedded
rather than a globally connected place.
Jingdezhen fell outside the administrative
structures that shaped status and hierarchy
within the imperial polity, and in
cartographic and written representations its
position depended on the status of the places
in its most immediate geographical vicinity.
For Jingde, that vicinity was formed by
places such as Fuliang, Raozhou, and
Huizhou. Manufacture and trade did shape
local identities, but those identities
remained located within the seas and did not
cross cultural boundaries. These places may
well have been ‘global’ in the sense that
their export of material culture connected
them to a worldwide network of economic
relations. But those global connections
hardly had an impact on the representation
of these places in local textual geographies,
perhaps not even on the ways in which
inhabitants, visitors, and administrators
understood them as places. ”
这些文献对景德镇的描述五花八门：它像
是一个游离在行政体系之外的孤岛，是官
员们替冷漠朝廷卖命的苦寒之地，是生产
俗气花哨瓷器的作坊，是商人扎堆的据点
，也是商业网络里的关键枢纽。但最让我
惊讶的是，几乎所有文本都闭口不提景德
镇和“境外”的联系。尽管饶州产的瓷器早
就卖遍四海，尽管清初县令陈淯都记录过
“番商云集”的场面，但景德镇在文字里始
终是个“本地化”的存在，而非全球化的枢
纽。它既不被纳入帝国的等级官僚体系，
在地图和文书中的定位也完全取决于周
边地区——比如浮梁、饶州、徽州——的
地位高低。制造和贸易确实影响了当地的
身份认同，但这些身份始终被框在“海内”
的界限内，从未跨过文化鸿沟。从出口网
络看，这些地方或许算得上“全球化”的一
员，但那些跨国交易对本地文献的书写毫
无影响，甚至可能连当地人、访客、官员
自己都没意识到这种“全球性”。
56

Asset Metadata

Creator Chen, Yiyi (author)

Core Title A historical recount of Jingdezhen ceramics: from northern to southern Song Dynasty

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

School Roski School of Art and Design

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Curatorial Practices and the Public Sphere

Degree Conferral Date 2025-05

Publication Date 04/10/2025

Defense Date 04/10/2025

Publisher University of Southern California (original), Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag bilingual scholarship,ceramic production,global trade networks,interdisciplinary research,Jingdezhen,kiln technology,qingbai porcelain,Song Dynasty

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Advisor Campbell, Andrew (committee chair), Desjardins, Miya (committee member), Mueller, Thomas (committee member)

Creator Email yiyic@usc.edu,cyy.elaine@protonmail.com

Unique identifier UC11399KASN

Identifier etd-ChenYiyi-13918.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-ChenYiyi-13918

Document Type Thesis

Format theses (aat)

Rights Chen, Yiyi

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20250414-usctheses-batch-1251 (batch), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection), University of Southern California (contributing entity)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Jingdezhen, celebrated as China’s “Porcelain Capital,” rose to prominence during the Song Dynasty (960–1279) as a center of ceramic innovation, producing the iconic qingbai (bluish-white) porcelain renowned for its technical precision and refined aesthetics. While its historical significance is widely acknowledged, scholarship remains divided: Mandarin-language sources prioritize technical mastery, documenting advancements in kiln structures, glaze compositions, and regional craftsmanship, whereas English-language studies emphasize qingbai’s role in global trade networks and cross-cultural exchange. This study bridges these linguistic and methodological divides by synthesizing bilingual scholarship to interrogate how Jingdezhen’s ceramic production adapted to shifting cultural, economic, and technological dynamics in Song China and beyond. Through comparative analysis of primary and secondary sources, the research reveals that kiln competition drove qingbai’s technical evolution, while Song-era trade expansion positioned Jingdezhen as a nexus of transnational artistic dialogue. Key findings underscore the disconnect between Mandarin texts, which frame ceramics as heritage craft tied to local identity, and English scholarship, which prioritizes porcelain as a commodity of global influence. By uniting these perspectives, the study highlights Jingdezhen’s dual legacy as a site of technological ingenuity and cultural intermediation, challenging siloed approaches to art history.