The influence of the League of Schmalkald on the Protestant Reformation

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Content THE
ÏKPLXMCE OF THE LEA.GUE OF SOHMALKAIiD
OH THE 3
PROTESTANT REFOBMÂ.TION
Â T h e s is
P re s e n te d , t o t h e D ep artm en t o f H is to r y
t J n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a
I n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
o f th e
R e q u ire m e n ts f o r t h e
D egree o f M a ste r o f A rts
By
C o n sta n c e F a g g e t te r
May Î , 1926
UMI Number: EP67430
All rights reserved
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Dissertation P^MisWng
UMI EP67430
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This thesis, having been approved by the ^
special Faculty C om m ittee, is accepted by the
Council on Graduate Study and Research
of the U niversity of Southern California,
in partial fulfillm ent of the requirem ents
for the degree of.......msTEB.m.. A R TS....................
Secretary'
Dean
/
This thesis, having heen approved by the
special Faculty C om m ittee, is accepted by the
C ouncil on Graduate Study and Research
of the U niversity of Southern California,
in partial fulfillm ent of the requirem ents
for the degree of m s]3 R .jO P ..A R T 8 ..............
Secretary
-----
Dean
Table o f Contents
I n t r o d u c t i o n
C h a p te r I
A n te c e d e n t c o n d itio n s
P o l i t i c a l ............................................................ t
S o c i a l . ...................................................................................................................... 7
E e lig io u s . . . . . .. .. .. 1 0
C h a p te r I I
H is to r y o f t h e L eague o f S c iu n a lk a ld i n G -em any, 1-154?
F o rm a tio n a n d e x t e n t o f th e League o f S c h m a lk a ld . . . 25
A r t i c l e s o f S c h m a lk a ld . . . . . . . . . . 5 ^
H is to r y o f t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld , Î5 J7 -Î-5 4 1 . . . . 59
D ie t o f H a tis b o n . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2
H is to r y o f th e League o f S c h m a lk a ld , 1 ^ 4 1 -1 5 4 6 . . . . 45
S c h m a lk a ld ic War . . . . . . . . . . . 50
C h a p te r I I I
I n f lu e n c e o f t h e League o f S c h m a lk a ld ic on th e P r o t e s t a n t
D e fo rm a tio n i n Germany
A u g sb u rg I n te r i m . . . . . . . . . & 1
D e fe a t o f C h a rle s V, and P e a c e o f P a s s a u . . . . c . 68
P e a c e o f A u g sb u rg , an d i t s in f l u e n c e i n Germany . . . 70
Summary o f t h e w ork o f th e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld i n Germany 77
i i
Chapter IV
Influence of the League of Schmalkald on the Protestant
Reformation in lands outside of Germany-
Positive influence in%-
England . . # , . , . . ., # . # 8 1
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . .. . ^ w
Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . #52
Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5
Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5
Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5
France .. ... ... .. .96
Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 9
P o la n d . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
L iv o n ia an d E s th o n ia . . • . . • . . • . 1 0 0
B ohem ia an d M o ra v ia . c . . c . . . . . . . 1 0 1
H ungary . . . c . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 1
N e g a tiv e in f l u e n c e i n : -
Italy . . . .. .. . . . . . . 1u2
Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
I r e l a n d . . . . . . . . .
C o n c lu sio n . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
B ib lio g r a p h y . . . . . . . . . . . * . t 0 8
A p p en d ix . . . . . . . . . . # • • • t15
s u
INTBDIfOOTION
The League o f S c h m a lk a ld was a n a sse m b la g e o f German P r o t e s t a n t
P r in c e s t h a t , th ro u g h p o l i t i c a l an d r e l i g i o u s c h a n n e ls , d i r e c t l y
e x e r te d a v a s t an d f a r - r e a c h i n g in f lu e n c e on t h e P r o t e s t a n t R efo rm a tio n *
The f o r m a tio n o f t h e League o f S c h m a lk a ld was n o t an i s o l a t e d
e v e n t b u t one t h a t grew o u t o f d e f i n i t e p o e t i c a l , s o c i a l , an d r e
l i g i o u s c a u s e s , P h i l i p , t h e L andgrave o f H e s se , an d J o h n , th e E l e c t o r
o f S ax o n y , w ere c h i e f l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h i s League
i n F e b r u a r y , I 551 , The h i s t o r y o f t h e League i s c l o s e l y in te rw o v e n
w ith t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n i n G erm any, The L eague becam e
ÿhe cham pion o f r e l i g i o u s freed o m a g a i n s t t h e ty r a n n y o f t h e Roman
C a th o lic C h u rch , Due t o t h e in f l u e n c e o f t h i s L eague o f P r o t e s t a n t
P r in c e s on t h e R e fo rm a tio n i n Germany many s t a t e s an d c i t i e s w ere
won o v e r t o L u th e ra n is m , an d t h e League becam e t h e r a l l y i n g p o in t
f o r d is c o n te d P r o t e s t a n t s an d C a th o lic s a l i k e a g a i n s t t h e B n p e ro r,
C h a rle s 7 .
U nder t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h i s League t h e r e f o r m e rs drew up t h e
S ch m a lk ald A r t i c l e s w h ich l a t e r becam e one o f t h e d o c t r i n a l sym bols
o f th e L u th e ra n C h u rch , I t a l s o s e c u re d t h e a b d i c a t i o n o f C h a rle s
7 , t h e m ost p o w e rfu l f o e o f P r o te s ta n tis m , The g r e a t e s t a c c o m p lis h
m ent o f t h e L eague i n G erm any, h o w ev er, was t h e P e a c e o f A ugsburg
w h ich c lo s e d th e s t r u g g l e b e tw e e n t h e C a th o lic s an d P r o t e s t a n t s , T h is
I t
P e a c e m ark ed t h e l e g a l s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e tw o c h u rc h e s , an d i t was
t h e f i r s t s te p on t h e ro a d t o i n d i v id u a l freed o m o f r e l i g i o u s th o u g h t.
The L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld consum m ated v a r io u s f o r e i g n a l l i a n c e s
a n d , due t o t h e s e a l l i a n c e s , e x e r t e d an i n f l u e n c e on t h e P r o t e s t a n t
R e fo rm a tio n in many f o r e i g n la n d s . The in f l u e n c e o f t h e League was
e s p e c i a l l y p ro n o u n c e d i n E n g la n d , D enm ark, Norw ay, an d Sw eden, I t s
i n f l u e n c e , h o w ev er, can a l s o h e d e t e c t e d i n t h e c o u rs e o f t h e
R e fo rm a tio n i n I c e l a n d , S w itz e r la n d , F r a n c e , t h e N e th e r la n d s , P o la n d ,
L iv o n ia , E s th o n i a , B ohem ia, M o ra v ia , and H ungary,
A s id e fro m t h i s p o s i t i v e in f l u e n c e t h e r e w as, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , a
c e r t a i n n e g a tiv e in f l u e n c e i n I t a l y , S p a in , an d I r e l a n a w hich m a t e r i a l l y
a id e d th e C o u n te r— R e fo rm a tio n i n th o s e la n d s .
C h a p te r I
m sE G sm m c o iïd itio n s
I n r e v ie w in g t h e a n te c e d e n t c o n d i tio n s t h a t p a v e d t h e igay f o r
t h e f o r m a tio n o f a L eague among t h e German P r o t e s t a n t p r i n c e s , i t i s
n e c e s s a r y t o n o te t h e p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , a n d r e l i g i o u s c o n d itio n s o f
t h e d eca d e t h a t im m e d ia te ly p re c e d e t h e s u b j e c t i n q u e s ti o n . Such
an h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g ro u n d i s n e c e s s a r y f o r a p r o p e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f
t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d e f e n s iv e an d o f f e n s i v e a l l i a n c e e n t e r e d i n t o
b y th e p o w e rfu l p r i n c e s an d c i t i e s o f G erm any i n t h e m onth o f F eb
r u a r y , 1351*
I n o r d e r t o g a in a n i n t e l l i g e n t u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e p o l i t i c a l
r e lc tti o n s b e tw e e n C h a r le s , t h e B n p e ro r, a n d t h e League o f S c h m a lk a ld ,
one m u st n o te b r i e f l y t h e p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y o f th e H oly Roman B n p ire
from t h e c o r o n a tio n o f C h a r le s , in 1319, up t o t h e m e e tin g o f t h e
p r i n c e s a t S ch m a lk a ld e n i n 1351, The g l o r i o u s H oly Roman B n p ire h a d
b y t h i s tim e b e e n re d u c e d t o a m ere snadow o f i t s fo rm e r g r e a t n e s s *
S w itz e r la n d h a d p r e v io u s l y s e v e re d h e r s e l f from a l l p o l i t i c a l co n
n e c t io n s w ith t h e B n p ir e , E n g la n d , S p a in , an d F ra n c e h a d n e v e r p r o p
e r l y b e lo n g e d — a lth o u g h th e F re n c h k in g h a d som etim es sw orn f e a l t y ,
an d H enry 7 1 1 1 h a d done so once o r tw ic e when h e deem ed i t s u i t a b l e to
h i s p u rp o s e . The e l e c t i o n o f t h e B a p e ro r h a d come t o b e a n a r b i t r a r y
s e l e c t i o n b y t h e German D i e t . T h is bod y r e c e iv e d i t s pow er fro m t h e
G olden B u ll t h a t was is s u e d b y t h e D ie ts o f N urem berg an d M etz i n 1336
Î
a n d was a f te r w a r d s c a l l e d t h e G olden B u ll o f C h a rle s 1 7 ,
I
B ry c e , H o ly Roman B n p ir e . 226
The p r o v is io n s o f t h i s B a l l , udiich was a f te r w a r d s r e g a r d e d a s
t h e fu n d a m e n ta l law o f t h e E m p ire , w ere a s f o l l o w s : - ( l ) t h e o f f i c e o f
cn p -^ h earer w as d e le g a te d t o B ohem ia, o f w h ich s t a t e C h a rle s was th e n
t h e k in g , ( 2 ) I t l a i d down a v a r i e t y o f r u l e s f o r t h e c o n d u c t o f Imp
e r i a l e l e c t i o n s , an d F r a n k f o r t was ch o sen a s t h e p l a c e o f e l e c t i o n .
( 5 ) The a r c h b is h o p o f M entz was t o h e t h e c o n v e n e r o f t h e E l e c t o r a l
C o lle g e ; B ohem ia was t o h o ld t h e f i r s t p la c e among t h e s e c u l a r e l e c t
o r s , an d t h e C ount o f P a l a t i n e , t h e se c o n d p l a c e . ( 4 ) A m a j o r i t y o f
v o te s i n a l l c a s e s was t o h e d e c i s i v e . ( 3 ) The t h r e e p r e l a t e s w ere t h e
a r c h c h a n c e l lo r s o f G erm any, G aul an d B urg u n d y , an d I t a l y r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
( 6 ) The P a ls g r a v e was t o h e t h e s e n e s c h a l ; t h e E l e c t o r o f Saxony was
t o h e t h e m a r s h a l, an d t h e E l e c t o r o f B ra n d e n b u rg , t h e c h a m b e rla in .
The D ie t c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e s e p a r a t e c o l l e g e s : (0 t h e E l e c t o r s ,
1
(2 ) t h e P r i n c e s , l a y a n d e c c l e s i a s t i c a l , (> ) t h e f r e e I m p e r ia l c i t i e s .
The a rra n g e m e n t, h o w e v e r, was n e v e r s a t i s f a c t o r y , b e c a u s e o f i t s u n
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r , f o r t h e lo w e r n o b i l i t y a n d t h e k n ig h ts o f t h e
E m pire h a d no r e p r e s e n t a t i o n an d r e s e n te d e v e ry d e c r e e t h a t a f f e c t e d
t h e i r p o s i t i o n , s p e c i a l l y r e f u s i n g t o p a y t a x e s i n t h e v o ti n g o f w h ich
th e y h a d no c h o ic e , " A f t e r many e a r n e s t a t t e m p t s , ” s a y s Jam es B ry ce i n
h i s H o ly Roman E m p ire . ”t o e s t a b l i s h a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s y ste m Such a s
m ig h t r e s i s t t h e te n d e n c y t o l o c a l in d e p e n d e n c e , an d c u re t h e e v i l s o f
s e p a r a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e h o p e , so o f t e n b a f f l e d , d ie d a w a y ,” P o l
i t i c a l c o n d i tio n s re m a in e d th u s f o r many y e a r s b e c a u s e t h e f o r c e s o f t h e
Î
Seebohm , E ra o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t R e v o lu tio n . 2â ,
s o v e r e ig n an d t h e re fo rm in g p a r t y w ere so e v e n ly m atched* The so v
e r e i g n w as p o w e rle s s t o e x te n d h i s p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l an d th e re fo rm
in g p a r t y was n o t a b l e t o l i m i t him f u r t h e r . I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o
s e e thnt t h e P r in c e s w ould becom e m ore a n d m ore d e s p o ti c i n t h e i r own
t e r r i t o r i e s a s t h e e x i s t i n g sy ste m becam e i n t e n s i f i e d . D i s t i n c t
c o d es w ere fra m e d , an d new sy ste m s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w ere in tr o d u c e d .
The in s u r g e n t p e a s a n t r y was c u t down w ith m ore c o n f id e n t h a r s h n e s s ,
an d a l r e a d y , b e f o r e C h a rle s 7 was cro w n ed , a le a g u e o f p r i n c e s an d
c i t i e s w as fo rm in g , an d a l l i a n c e s w ere b e in g c o n t r a c te d w ith f o r e i g n
p o w e rs.
In Germ any p r o p e r , M a x im ilia n I h a d i n s t i t u t e d a n I m p e r ia l Cham
b e r o f J u s t i c e , w h ich W t,v S i n th e n a t u r e o f a s u p e r i o r c o u r t f o r t h e
t r i a l o f c a s e s b e tw e e n t h e in d e p e n d e n t mem bers o f t h e B n p ie r, h a v in g
a l s o , i n a few m a t t e r s , a n a i^ p e lla te j u r i s d i c t i o n . The c o u r t u s u a l l y
c o n s i s t e d o f s i x t e e n m em bers, an d h a d i t s s e a t , f i r s t a t Worms, an d
l a t e r a t S p i r e . I t w i l l b e w e ll t o k eep i n m ind th e u n d e m o c ra tic
c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s I m p e r ia l ch am b er, f o r i t l a t e r becam e one o f t h e
p rim a ry r e a s o n s f o r t h e m e e tin g o f t h e p r i n c e s a t S c h m a lk a ld e n .
Such w ere t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n d itio n s i n # ie n M a x im ilia n I
d ie d , an d l e f t t h e o f f i c e o f B n p e ro r o f t h e H oly Roman B jip ire v a c a n t.
T h e re w ere t h r e e p o s s i b l e c a n d id a te s f o r th e o f f i c e , C h a rle s I o f S p a in ,
H enry 7 1 11 o f E n g la n d , an d F r a n c is I o f F r a n c e . A f o u r t h p o s s i b l e
c a n d id a te was t h e E l e c t o r o f Saxony whom t h e p r i n c e s o f t h e E m p ire
w ere a n x io u s t o h a v e e l e c t e d . B ut t h e E l e c t o r was w is e an d u n s e l f i s h
enough t o r e f u s e t h i s o p p o r tu n i ty , an d l e f t t h e p ro b le m i n a s t i l l m ore
4
d o u b tf u l c o n d i t i o n , f o r now t h e e l e c t i o n h in g e d u p o n t h e q u e s ti o n ,
"vdiich c a n d id a te w i l l t h e E l e c t o r o f S axony s u p p o r t^ ” The E l e c t o r a l
C o lle g e c o n s i s t e d o f t h e t h r e e a rc h b is h o p s o f M ayence, T r e v e s , an d
C o lo g n e , t h e C ount P a l a t i n a t e o f t h e R h in e , t h e K in g o f B ohem ia, th e
E l e c t o r o f S ax o n y , an d t h e M arg rav e o f B ra n d e n b u rg . A f te r some h e s
i t a t i o n , t h e E l e c t o r o f S axony th re w h i s i n f l u e n c e on t h e s id e o f
C h a rle s o f S p a in a n d on J u n e 2 6 , 13Î9, C h a r le s , t h e n i n h i s n i n e t e e n t h
y e a r,' was e l e c t e d E m peror o f t h e H oly Homan E m pire an d becam e known
a s C h a rle s T .
T h is p r in c e who a s c e n d e d t h e I m p e r ia l t h r o n e , u n i t e d u n d e r h i s
pow er v a s t dom ains an d t e r r i t o r i e s . He was t h e r u l e r o f t h e A u s tr ia n
s t a t e s . N o rth an d S o u th N e th e r la n d s , N a p le s , S i c i l y , S a r d i n i a , U pper
I t a l y , U n ite d S p a in , t h e c o a s t o f I n d i a , F la n d e r s , a n d o t h e r p a r t s o f
B u rg u n d ia n la n d s . He was a l s o i n c o n t r o l o f t h e n ew ly d is c o v e r e d
A m erica a n d drew i n e x h a u s t i b l e re v e n u e s from t h a t new B n p ire beyond th e
A t l a n t i c . And now , h e h a d , b y t h e a c t i o n o f t h e E l e c t o r a l C o lle g e ,
becom e r u l e r o f G erm any.
The German p r i n c e s w ere w ary an d in d e p e n d e n t, a n d , when t h e y e l
e c t e d C h a rle s t o o f f i c e th e y made him s ig n a com pact c o n ta in in g t h i r t y
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w h ich w ere d e s ig n e d t o p r o t e c t them a g a i n s t a n u n
s c r u p u lo u s r u l e r . The m o st im p o rta n t o f t h e s e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w ere a s
1 '
f o ll o w s : t h e B n p e ro r was t o e x e c u te a l l t h e la w s , b u t h e was t o m ake
no new o n e s . He c o u ld im pose no ta x e s e x c e p t b y a c t i o n o f t h e D ie t.
1
G in d e ly , The H is to r y o f th e T h i r t y Y e a rs * W ar. I , 9 .
He c o u ld fo rm no a l l i a n c e s w ith o u t t h e c o n c u rre n c e o f th e E l e c t o r s , n o r
c o u ld h e b r i n g f o r e i g n tr o o p s i n t o t h e B n p ir e , o r h o ld D ie ts o u t s i d e
t h e % p i r e . He c o u ld a p p o in t n o n e b u t Germans t o o f f i c e , an d h e was
p le d g e d t o p r o t e c t t h e s t a t e s a g a i n s t t h e S ee o f Borne. He was t o make
c o n q u e s ts o n ly f o r and r e s i d e c h i e f l y i n t h e E m pire an d c o u ld p la c e no
^ s t a t e u n d e r a n I m p e r ia l B an. I n t h e e x e c u tio n o f th e ab o v e p r o v i s i o n s ,
m o re o v e r, h e was t o m a in ta in i n v i o l a t e a l l t h e e x i s t i n g law s a n d o r d
in a n c e s o f th e B n p ir e , n o r was h e t o im p a ir t h e pow er o f t h e E s t a t e s
o r l a y u n n e c e s s a r y im p o s ts . He was t o u s e t h e German la n g u a g e e x
c l u s i v e l y i n a l l I m p e r ia l a f f a i r s an d d o c u m e n ts. He was t o Summon
no German b e f o r e a t r i b u n a l o u t s i d e t h e c o u n tr y , an d h e was t o p r o
h i b i t a l l le a g u e s o f n o b le s , c i t i e s , an d m e rc h a n ts . I n s h o r t , h e was
t o b e o n ly t h e m ere r e p l i c a o f a n B n p e ro r— an d t h e D ie t was t o r u l e
G erm any, B ut l i t t l e d id t h e p r i n c e s know C h a r le s . They h a d b u i l t
t h e i r s t r u c t u r e on th e q u ic k s a n d s o f d ip lo m a tic p ro m ise s ; an d th r o u g h
o u t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e L eague o f S ch m a lk a ld we s h a l l s e e C h a rle s
/
r e v e a le d i n h i s t r u e l i g h t f o r h e r e g a r d e d t h i s com pact a s a m ere
1
p ie c e o f p a p e r .
By a n o th e r a rra n g e m e n t m ade a t t h e tim e o f h i s e l e c t i o n , C h a rle s
a g r e e d t h a t th e I m p e r ia l C ham ber, r e a l l y a co m m ittee o f E s t a t e s , s h o u ld
2
g o v e rn d u r in g h i s a b s e n c e . W h ile h e was % *
s e iz e d t h e o p p o r tu n i ty o f d ra w in g u p a p r o j e c t f o r a g e n e r a l t a x
Î
Zimmerman. A P o p u la r H is to r y o f G erm any. I T , 1578.
2
D r y e r , H is to r y o f th e C h r i s t i a n C h u rch . 1 5 1 7 -1 6 4 8 . I l l , 14?.
w hich w ould h a v e g r e a t l y s tr e n g th e n e d t h e pow er o f t h e p r i n c e s ; h u t
t h e f r e e c i t i e s f e a r e d th e y w ould h e i n j u r e d h y t h e t a x so th e y s e n t
a co m m ittee t o t h e E m peror i n S p a in w h ich p ro m p tly c a u s e d him t o v e to
th e p r o j e c t .
The r u l e o f t h e cham ber was i n f u l l v i g o r f o r a b o u t two y e a r s
a f t e r t h e D ie t o f V/orras w h ich vras h e l d i n 1521 an d t h e m ost i n f l u
e n t i a l member o f t h e cham ber was F r e d e r ic k o f S ax o n y . B ut a f t e r t h i s
we f i n d th e p a p a c y c r e e p in g i n ; Pope I ^ d r i a n 71 w an ted th e E d ic t o f
Worms e n f o r c e d an d p r e s s e d h i s c a s e so p e r s i s t e n t l y t h a t t h e cham ber
r e tu r n e d a s t a r t l i n g l e g a l In d ic tm e n t e n t i t l e d . One H undred C o m p la in ts
o f t h e German N a tio n . "T hey a r e a m ost m em orable p r o o f o f t h e im
p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e t a i n i n g t h e h o ld o f t h e c h u rc h u p o n Germany w ith o u t
1
a th o ro u g h re fo rm o f t h e P a p a l sy ste m # ”
A f t e r C h a rle s was e l e c t e d t o o f f i c e h e p ro c e e d e d t o ad d t o h i s
kingdom t e r r i t o r i a l l y . He b o u g h t F r i e s l a n d f o r 1 0 0 ,O O üzguêlden, a h d
p u rc h a s e d W urtem berg fro m t h e S w abian L eague f o r 2 0 0 ,üûû g u e ld e n .
He th e n d iv id e d w ith F e rd in a n d t h e German t e r r i t o r i e s t h a t h e h a d i n
h e r i t e d fro m h i s g r a n d f a t h e r . C h a rle s n e x t fo r g e d a l i n k w ith th e
Pope a t Home s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e D ie t o f Worms, o n May 8 . T h is to o k
t h e fo rm o f a s e c r e t t r e a t y an d p r o v id e d , i n b r i e f , t h a t t h e Pope an d
2
t h e E m peror s h o u ld h a v e t h e same f r i e n d s an d t h e same e n e m ie s .
C h a rle s was so o n e m b ro ile d i n d i f f i c u l t i e s w ith h i s n e ig h b o r s . He
1
D ry e r, o p . c i t . . 4 8 .
2
Zimmerman, o p . . c i t . , 1587.
was c a l l e d t o S p a in t o c ru s h a r e v o l t ; h e was summoned t o t h e N e th e r
la n d s t o p r e v e n t t h e s p i r i t o f r e b e l l i o n ; a n d h i s a t t e n t i o n was
c a l l e d t o H ungary w here t h e T u rk s w ere s to r m in g B e lg r a d e . C h a rle s
m a in ta in e d no o r d e r o r u n i t y i n t h e German B n p ir e ; t h e German p r i n c e s
w ere i n p o w e r, an d a l l men r e p o r t e d t o b e L u th e r a n s , o r s e l l i n g
B ib le s w ere b u r n t . C lem ent V II h a d fo rm ed an a l l i a n c e w ith P ra n c e
an d C h a rle s was f o r c e d t o e n l i s t t h e German tr o o p s i n o r d e r t o d e
f e a t t h i s s t r o n g c o m b in a tio n an d a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s d e f e a t t h e Pope
was f o r c e d t o p la c e t h e I m p e r ia l crow n on t h e h e a d o f C h a r le s . Such
was t h e p o l i t i c a l s t a t e o f a f f a i r s im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d in g t h e D ie t o f
A u g sb u rg i n 1550.
L et u s now r e c o n n o i t r e an d o b s e rv e t h e s o c i a l c o n d itio n s i n
G erm any d u r in g t h e d e c a d e im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d in g t h e f o r m a tio n o f
t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld .
The German p e a s a n t r y was i n a d e p l o r a b le s t a t e ; t h e f e u d a l sy ste m
s t i l l p r e v a i l e d ; f i s t - l a w was t h e o n ly law known t o t h e p e t t y l o r d s
1
an d t h e p o o r p e a s a n t s . The r e a l s t r e n g t h o f Germany la y i n h e r to w n s.
Towns w ere g ro w in g t o b e s tr o n g a n d w e a lth y econom ic u n i t s d u e t o
t h e r i c h commerce t h a t p o u re d th r o u g h th e m . The German p e a s a n t was
n o th in g m ore n o r l e s s th a n a s e r v i l e t e n a n t ; h i s l i v i n g c o n d i tio n s
w ere p i t i a b l e , sh o w in g l i t t l e im provem ent o v e r t h e c o n d i tio n e x i s t
e n t i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h an d f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . The home o f t h e
p e a s a n t was a m ean, th a tc h e d h u t i n v h ic h w ere h o u s e d , n o t o n ly h i s
1.
Seebohm , E ra o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t R e v o lu tio n . 5u,
ê
f a m ily , b u t a l s o h i s cows an d p ig s # Such l i v i n g c o n d i tio n s w ere
r i p e f u e l f o r t h e e x p lo s iv e s p a r k o f some f i e r y re fo rm e r# I n f a c t ,
r e b e l l i o n was t h e o n ly rem edy f o r su c h c o n d itio n s o f n e a r - s la v e r y #
The econom ic c o n d i tio n o f t h e p e a s a n ts h a d b e e n g ro w in g w o rse
f o r a c e n tu ry # The lo r d s an d f e u d a l m a s te rs h a d s t e a d i l y d e p r iv e d
t h e p e a s a n ts o f a l l t h e r i g h t s th e y h a d f o r m e r ly p o s s e s s e d . F o r
i n s t a n c e , th e y p r o h i b i t e d t h e fa rm e rs from g a t h e r i n g f r e e fire w o o d
from t h e f o r e s t s , t h e y a b o lis h e d t h e r i g h t o f e m ig r a tio n , th e y to o k
away th e r i g h t o f t h e p e a s a n t t o u s e la n d t h a t h a d f o r m e r ly b e e n
em ployed f o r common t i l l a g e and p a s tu r a g e , th e y a b u s e d t h e r i g h t s o f
th e c h a s e , and th e y w reak ed d e s t r u c t i o n on t h e p e a s a n t r y b y t h e i r
p e r s i s t e n t , p e t t y w a rs . " T h e r e f o r e , i t i s t o b e e x p e c t e d ,” t o u s e
t h e w ords o f D ry e r i n h i s H is to r y o f th e C h r i s t i a n C h u rch . V o l. I l l ,
" t h a t t h e p e a s a n ts saw i n t h e new r e l i g i o u s o r d e r t h e com ing rem edy
f o r t h e i r a n c i e n t w ro n g s."
The new c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y u n a e r C h a rle s V was g r e a t l y fa v o r e d b y
t h e p r in c e s who w ere a n x io u s t o becom e t h e m a s t e r s . B ut t h e k n i g h t s ,
who w ere u n f a v o r a b ly cram ped b y t h e in c r e a s i n g pow er o f t h e p r i n c e s ,
so o n assum ed ^ o f f e n s iv e a t t i t u d e a n d , u n d e r t h e le a d e r s h i p o f Hut t e n
a n d S ic k in g e n , fo rm e d a p o w e rfu l s e c r e t le a g u e . T hey d e te rm in e d t o
c a r r y t h e R e fo rm a tio n t h r o u ^ o u t Germany b y f o r c e o f a rm s . They
a b o lis h e d b i s h o p r i c s an d c o n v e n ts , an d th e y aim ed a t d e s tr o y i n g t h e
1
s p i r i t u a l p rin c e d o m s on t h e R h in e . T hey f i n a l l y a t t a c k e d T re v e s ,
1
Zimmerman, o p . c i t . . 1591#
b u t s u p e r i o r f o r c e s d ro v e them aw ay, and S ic k in g e n , d y in g so o n a f t e r ,
c a u s e d t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e L ea g u e. U l r i c h Ton Hut t e n to o k up h i s
w ork e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y b u t h i s d e a th a l s o c a u s e d t h e movement t o b e
c h e c k e d f o r t h e tim e b e in g . The R e fo rm a tio n , h o w ev er, so o n s e t f i r e
t o a l l t h i s u n r e s t , an d t h e p e a s a n t s , d e te rm in e d t o w in b a c k t h e i r
fo rm e r r i g h t s an d l i b e r t i e s , b ro k e f o r t h i n a g r e a t r e v o l t i n 1525^
The r e v o l t s t a r t e d i n t h e t e r r i t o r i e s o f t h e A u s tr ia n A rc h d u k e , an d
b y F e b ru a ry h a d sw ept th r o u g h t h e B la c k F o r e s t , S axony, a n d T h u r in g ia .
I n M arch t h e p e a s a n t le a d e r s drew up t h e i r fam ous T w elve A r t i c l e s ,
b u t th e y s e c u re d f o r th e p e a s a n t s p r a c t i c a l l y n o th in g . I n s p i t e o f
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e v o l t h a d g a in e d su c h a p o w e rfu l im p e tu s , i t i s
s u r p r i s i n g to n o te t h a t i t was so o n s u p p r e s s e d an d d i s s e n s i o n , a p p e a r
in g among th e l e a d e r s , r e s u l t e d i n c o m p le te f a i l u r e when t h e p e a s a n ts
w ere d e f e a te d a t F ra n k h a u se n on May 15, 1525. The c a u s e s f o r t h i s
1
f a i l u r e w ere a s f o l l o v / s (î) T h e re was no r e c o g n iz e d h e a d o r a u t h
o r i t y ; ( 2 ) t h e le a d e r s f a i l e d t o in c lu d e t h e l e s s e r n o b le s a n d c i t i e s ;
( 5 ) t h e r e v o l t was o f to o s h o r t d u r a ti o n t o g e t w e ll u n d e r w ay; (4 )
t h e r e was no f e e l i n g o f n a t i o n a l i t y t h a t w ould s e r v e t o h o ld t h e
German p e o p le t o - g e t h e r ; ( 5 ) l a s t l y , t h e a t t i t u d e o f L u th e r h e lp e d t o
d e f e a t t h e i r c a u s e . " P o l i t i c a l l y , h e l i v e d i n t h e M id d le A g e s ,— an d
h a d b u t one m axim , t h e u n li m it e d s u b m is s io n t o a u t h o r i t y , t o t h a t
2
o f t h e E m p ero r, an d o f t h e p r i n c e s . " H is w r i t i n g s w ere a f a c t o r i n
1
Zimmerman, o £ . c i t . . 1591*
2
D ry e r, pp.# c i t . . 152.
lû
t
a r o u s in g s e n tim e n t a g a i n s t t h e r e v o l t o f t h e p e a s a n t s . I n A p r i l ,
1525 a p p e a re d h i s E x h o r ta tio n t o P e a c e on t h e Tw elve A r t i c l e s o f t h e
S w abian P e a s a n tr y ; a n d on May 5 a p p e a re d t h e t i r a d e . A g a in s t t h e
M u rd e rin g . R o b b in g , R ab b le o f P e a s a n ts .
T h u s, a f t e r one b r i e f , sp asm o d ic o u t b u r s t , t h e s o c i a l c o n d i tio n
o f t h e p e a s a n ts was t h a t o f s in k in g b a c k i n t o n e a r - s l a v e r y . D u rin g
t h e r e v o l t , o v e r o n e h u n d re d th o u s a n d p e a s a n ts l o s t t h e i r l i v e s .
I n s t e a d o f a i d i n g t h e c a u s e o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n , th e y tu r n e d th o u s a n d s
b a c k t o t h e Roman C a th o lic C hurch and th e y th e m s e lv e s sa n k b a c k i n t o
a n o th e r t h r e e h u n d re d y e a r s o f m is e r a b le b o n d a g e .
I n a b r i e f re v ie w o f t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n d i tio n s o f t h e d eca d e
im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d in g t h e D ie t o f A ugsburg i n Î55Ü , we w i l l n o te firsifc
a few o f t h e a b u s e s w ith i n t h e Roman C a th o lic C hurch t h a t c a l l e d
f o r t h th e le a d e r s o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t R e v o lu tio n .
The R e fo rm a tio n i n Germ any was n o t a s h a r p . S udden b r e a k w ith
an o ld f a i t h , b u t came a s t h e c lim a x o f a g r e a t r e n a i s s a n c e o f
th o u g h t an d p h ilo s o p h y . The German p e o p le w ere d e e p ly r e l i g i o u s i n
t h e i r home l i f e , an d w ere h u n g e rin g f o r t h e t r u e w ord o f God. The
C hurch o f Rome h a d a c c o m p lis h e d in e s tim a b le good f o r t h e p e o p le o f
t h e M id d le A g es; b u t , a s i n a l l i n s t i t u t i o n s , men o f e v i l s p i r i t h a d
a s s o c i a t e d th e m s e lv e s w ith i t , a n d c e r t a i n fo rm s o f r e l i g i o u s a b u s e s
h a d c r e p t i n s lo w ly a n d a lm o s t unbeknow n t o t h e g r e a t m ass o f f a i t h
f u l f o l l o w e r s . H ow ever, t h e r e w ere some f o r w a r d - lo o k in g men o f w ide
1
D ry e r, o p . c i t . , 152.
11
v i s i o n an d c l e a r i n t e l l e c t who p e r c e iv e d w h ith e r t h e c h u rc h was
d r i f t i n g , an d a tte m p te d t o c o r r e c t t h e u n f o r t u n a t e d e v e lo p m e n ts .
Such p io n e e r s w ere J o h n W y c liffe o f E n g la n d , an d J o h n H uss o f B ohem ia.
By w id e s p re a d te a c h i n g th e y p o in te d o u t t h e p ath w ay o f t r u e r i g h t e o u s
n e s s t o many i n d i v i d u a l s , h u t w ere b ra n d e d a s h e r e t i c s b y t h e Roman
C a t h o l i c s , a n d , i n 1414 a t t h e C o u n c il o f C o n s ta n c e , J o h n H uss was
s e n te n c e d t o b e b u rn e d t o d e a t h , an d t h e b o d y o f Jo h n W y c liffe t o b e
exhum ed an d b u rn e d a l s o . The w ork o f t h e s e gre^vt l e a d e r s d id n o t
p e r i s h w ith th « n — t h e s e men w ere t h e f o r e r u n n e r s o f one o f t h e
g r e a t e s t u p h e a v a ls i n u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r y — t h e P r o t e s t a n t R e fo rm a tio n .
The s e e d o f d is c o r d o n ce sow n, i t was n o t lo n g t i l l th e
d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n an d r e b e l l i o n was r i p e f o r t h e h an d o f t h e r e a p e r .
And th e r e a p e r was a n unknown German monk—M a r tin L u th e r .
L u th e r , s e a r c h in g f o r s p i r i t u a l p e a c e , h a d becom e a monk a t
t h e m o n a s te ry o f E r f u r t . He f a i l e d , h o w e v e r, t o f i n d t h a t inhich h e
s o u g h t a n d so o n becam e a p r e y t o m e n ta l an d s p i r i t u a l w r e tc h e d n e s s .
He was c a l l e d t o t h e U n iv e r s it y o f W itte n b e r g t o l e c t u r e on t h e
p h ilo s o p h y o f A r i s t o t l e ; b u t h e h a d come t o b e l i e v e i n t h e s e p a r a t i o n
o f c h u rc h an d s t a t e , an d s a i d t h a t A r i s t o t l e r u l e d m ore th a n d id
C h r i s t . I n a S h o rt tim e h i s w ork was i n t e r r u p t e d b y a t r i p t o Rome,
a n d on t h i s o c c a s io n h e saw t h e e v i l an d c o r r u p t i o n o f th e p a p a l
c o u r t . A f t e r h i s r e t u r n , h e to o k t h e d e g re e o f D o c to r o f D i v i n i t y
a t E r f u r t when h e was b u t tw e n ty - e ig h t y e a r s o l d . I t was i n h i s
■
s tu d y o f P a u l t h a t h e r e a l l y re a c h e d t h e t u r n i n g p o in t i n h i s h i s t o r y .
12
He r e a d t h e r e , "The j u s t s h a l l l i v e b y f a i t h , ” an d t h u s , h e a t l a s t
fo u n d ' t h e g r e a t s p i r i t u a l lam p o f p e r s o n a l i n t r o s p e c t i o n i«hich
i l lu m i n a te d t h e d a rk l i v e s o f th o u s a n d s o f b e l i e v e r s i n C h r i s t .
L u th e r soon becam e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s e l l i n g o f in d u lg e n c e s by
t h e C h u rch , an d e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e s a l e b y T e t z e l who was a c t i n g
c o n t r a r y t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e p a,pal c o u r t . T e t z e l was s u c c e s s
f u l l y c o l l e c t i n g money fro m t h i s h e in o u s s a l e , an d a p h r a s e c o in e d a t
t h e tim e d e s c r ib e s t h e s e n tim e n t o f L u th e r v e r y a p t l y — "As so o n a s
t h e money r i n g s i n t h e c a sh b o x t h e s o u l jum ps o u t o f p u r g a to r y and
1
f l i e s t o H e a v e n ." L u th e r , i n a s p i r i t o f j u s t i f i e d a n g e r s a i d , " I f
2
God w i l l , I w i l l make a h o le i n h i s d ru m ." W ish in g t o s t i m u l a t e a
d e b a te among h i s s tu d e n t s on t h e s u b j e c t , h e n a i l e d h i s fam ous N in e ty -
f i v e T h eses t o t h e d o o r o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y ; an d fro m t h i s r e s u l t e d t h e
f i n a l b r e a k w ith t h e C a t h o lic C h u rch . H e n c e fo rth h e b ro k e f r e e fro m
e v e r y th in g t h a t bound him t o t h e p a p a c y .
The p a p a l p a r t y was h ig h l y in c e n s e d o v e r t h i s u p s t a r t i n Germany
who was p re su m in g t o c r i t i c i z e t h e C a t h o lic s , b u t t h e p o l i t i c a l an d
r e l i g i o u s s i t u a t i o n was to o d e l i c a t e f o r t h e Pope t o a c t h a s t i l y i n
su c h a m a t t e r . He s e n t , a c c o r d in g ly , a R e p r e s e n t a t i v e , C h a rle s Von
M i l t i t z , a S axon n o b le m an , who was a t Borne a t t h e ti m e , t o i n v e s t i g a t e
c o n d i tio n s . When M i l t i t z a r r i v e d among t h e German p e o p le h e fo u n d
t h a t h e h a d t o d e a l , n o t w ith a r e c a l c i t r a n t m onk, b u t w ith t h e w hole
1
Zimmerman, o p . c i t . . 1571*
2
Ibid. . 1574.
n a t i o n . On t h e f o u r t h o f J u l y , Eck and L u th e r m et f o r t h e fam ous
L e ip z ic D is p u ta t io n . T h is D is p u ta t io n m ade L u th e r r e a l i z e f o r t h e f i n s t
tim e w hat la y i n h i s o p p o s iti o n t o In d u lg e n c e s . B ut h e h a d s t r u c k
a t t h e v e ry c e n t e r o f t h e m e d ie v a l e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s y ste m , a t i t s id e a s
o f a p r i e s t l y m e d ia tio n v h ic h d e n ie d th e r i g h t o f e v e ry b e l i e v e r t o
im m ed iate e n tr a n c e i n t o t h e v e r y p r e s e n c e o f God. In 1550 L u th e r w ro te
t h e t h r e e R e fo rm a tio n T r e a t i s e s a t a tim e when h e f e l t t h a t h e h ad
c o m p le te ly b ro k e n from Rome an d t h a t h e h a d n o th in g t o e s p e c t from
1
Rome b u t ex c o m m u n ic a tio n . The p la n o f re fo rm t h a t h e a d v o c a te d w a s,
( 1) t h e c o m p le te a b o l i t i o n o f t h e pow er o f t h e Pope o v e r t h e S ta te d ( 2 )
t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l German C h u rch , w ith a n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l co u n
c i l o f i t s own t o b e t h e f i n a l c o u r t o f a p p e a l f o r G erm any, an d to
r e p r e s e n t t h e German C hurch a s t h e D ie t d id t h e German S ta te * , ( 3 ) many
i n t e r n a l re fo rm s s u c h a s t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e num ber o f p il g r im a g e s ,
t h e r e d u c t io n o f t h e m e n d ic a n t o r d e r s , an d t h e in s p e c t i o n o f a l l convents
2
an d n u n n e r ie s .
The Pope r e p l i e d w ith t h e P a p a l B u l l . A ll f a i t h f u l p e o p le w ere
o r d e r e d t o b u m L u th e r ’ s books w h e re v e r th e y c o u ld f i n d t h e n ; L u th e r
was p r o h i b i t e d fro m t e a c h i n g , a n d h e , an d a l l who f o llo w e d h im , w ere
t o m ake p u b l i c r e c a n t a t i o n s w ith i n s i x t y d a y s , an d i f t h e y d i d n o t do
1
T h ese t h r e e t r e a t i s e s w ere e n t i t l e d The L i b e r ty o f a C h r i s t i a n M an,
To t h e C h r i s t i a n n o b i l i t y o f t h e German N a tio n , a n d On t h e B ab
y lo n ia n C a p t i v i t y o f t h e C h u rch .
2
L in d s a y , H is to r y o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n . I , 246.
14
SO w ere t o b e t r e a t e d a s h e r e t i c s , and a l l tow ns t h a t s h e l t e r e d them
w ere t o b e p la c e d u n d e r a n i n t e r d i c t . But t h e B u ll d id n o t ch ee k
L u th e r . On D ecem ber lü , r32u h e i n v i t e d a l l t h e s t u d e n t s o f W itte n
b e r g t o w itn e s s t h e b u r n in g o f t h e p a p a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s , and a t n in e
o ’ c lo c k i n t h e m o rn in g t h e B u ll was c o n s ig n e d t o t h e f la m e s . A t h r i l l
w ent th ro u g h o u t G erm any, a n d in d e e d th r o u g h a l l E u ro p e . . I t t h a t
th e i n d i v i d u a l s o u l h a d d is c o v e r e d i t s t r u e v a l u e .
The next important event was the Diet of Wormsf^Ap'ri 1' 1 6^ ' " ' ^ ; ô,
15 21, an d b e f o r e w h ich L u th e r was commanded t o a p p e a r . When h e l e f t
f o r t h e D ie t on A p r il 2 h e b e l ie v e d t h a t h e was g o in g t o h i s d e a th
b u t h e c o u n te d w ith o u t t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e s e c u l a r p r i n c e s , t h e m a j
o r i t y o f whom fa v o r e d h i s d o c t r i n e s an d p r e a c h in g . The p a p a l p a r t y ,
w h a te v e r i t s i n t e n t i o n s , w ere p r o h i b i t e d fro m d o in g v io le n c e to L u th e r
on a c c o u n t o f t h e p o w e rfu l p r in c e s who w e re p r e s e n t a t t h e D i e t . B ut
t h e p a p a l p a r t y r e a l i z e d a f te r w a r d s t h a t i t s a c t i n o u tla w in g L u th e r
was a l t o g e t h e r to o m ild . The S p a n ia rd L lo r e n to q u o te s from S a n d o v a l’ s
H is to r y o f C h a rle s T . " I c o n f e s s I m ade a g r e a t m is ta k e when I a llo w
ed L u th e r t o l i v e . I c o u ld h a v e an d o u g h t t o h av e b ro k e n my w ord— — .
H e re sy h a s m ade p r o g r e s s b e c a u s e I d i d n o t a llo w L u th e r t o b e p u t t o
1
d e a th , h i s d e a th w ould h a v e s t i f l e d i t i n i t s c r a d l e . ”
The I m p e r ia l E d ic t a g a i n s t L u th e r t h r e a t e n e d a l l h i s s y m p a th iz e rs
w ith e x t e r m in a tio n . I t p r a c t i c a l l y p ro c la im e d a n A lb ig e n s ia n War i n
1
Zimmerman, A Popular History of Germany^ IV , î5o5*
15
G erm any; b u t few docum ents h a v e e v e r p ro v e d so f u t i l e . A f t e r t h e
D i e t , L u th e r re m a in e d a t t h e W art b u r g f o r some tim e an d i t was t h e r e
t h a t h e t r a n s l a t e d t h e New T e sta m e n t i n t o G erm an. T h is t r a n s l a t i o n
p r o v id e d t h e p e o p le o f Germany w ith a B ib le w h ich th e y c o u ld r e a d a n d
i n t e r p r e t f o r th e m s e lv e s , an d i t m ark ed a new e r a i n t h e h i s t o r y o f
C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n . L u th e r ’ s te a c h in g s now s p re a d r a p i d l y a n d soon
p e n e t r a t e d t o a lm o s t u n b e l ie v a b l e c o r n e r s o f E u ro p e . The p a p a l B u ll
a n d t h e I m p e r ia l Ban h a d , i n s t e a d o f p o u r in g w a te r on t h e f la m e s ,
p o u re d o i l , an d t h e fla m e s w ere s p r e a d in g f a r an d w id e . But t h e r e a l
p a r t i n g o f t h e ways d id n o t o c c u r u n t i l a f t e r t h e P e a s a n t ’ s W ar, a t
t h e D ie t o f S p ir e i n 1526. T h is D ie t may b e ta k e n a s p e rh a p s t h e b e
g in n in g o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f Germany i n t o th e tw o o p p o s ite camps o f
P r o t e s t a n t an d Roman C a th o lic f a i t h s . In th e D ie t o f S p ir e i n 1526 i t
was u n a n im o u s ly r e s o lv e d t h a t , u n t i l t h e m e e tin g o f a g e n e r a l c o u n c i l ,
e v e r y s t a t e s h o u ld a c t i n r e g a r d t o t h e E d ic t o f Worms a s i t m ig h t
a n sw e r t o God an d h i s I m p e r ia l M a je s ty . Germany r e f u s e d t o s t i f l e t h e
R e fo rm a tio n , an d a d o p te d t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t e a c h o f t h e com ponent p a r t s
o f t h e B n p ire s h o u ld b e l e f t f r e e t o a c t a c c o r d in g t o i t s own w i l l .
" T h is was a m e a su re o f t h e h i g h e s t im p o rta n c e t o t h e c a u s e o f P r o t e s t
a n tis m ; an d i t i s a g r e a t la n d m a rk i n th e h i s t o r y o f t h e German R e f o r -
1
m a tio n ." The p r o v is io n s o f th e D ie t o f S p ir e i n 1529 v i r t u a l l y f o r
b a d e t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n i n a s t a t e w h ich h a d n o t a c c e p te d
1
Fisher, The Reformation. New and Rev. Ed., 105*
16
i t , b u t l i b e r t y was g iv e n t o a d h e r e n ts o f t h e o ld c o n f e s s io n i n
re fo rm e d s t« ,te s t o c e l e b r a t e t h e r i t e s w ith fre e d o m . T h is was man
i f e s t l y u n j u s t , and t h e R efo rm e rs d id n o t c o n s id e r th e m s e lv e s bound
b y t h i s a c t i o n , b a c a u s e i t co m p e lle d a g re e m e n t i n a m a tte r t h a t s h o u ld
b e l e f t t o t h e in d i v i d u a l .c o n s c ie n c e . A ls o , i t o v e rth re w a p o l i c y t h a t
was s o le m n ly e s t a b l i s h e d , " a p o l i c y on t h e f a i t h o f w h ich t h e p r in c e s
a n d c i t i e s t h a t w ere f a v o r a b l e t o t h e e v a n g e l i c a l c a u s e h a d p ro c e d e d
Î
i n s h a p in g t h e i r r e l i g i o u s p o l i c y an d w o r s h ip ."
A f te r t h i s a c t i o n , t h e L an d g rav e o f H esse t r i e d t o j o i n t h e R e f
o rm ers i n t o a d e f e n s iv e le a g u e a g a i n s t p a p a l su p re m a c y . B ut L u th e r
w «,s-opposed t o an y m e a su re t h a t m ig h t l e a d t o w ar w ith t h e Em peror ;
h e was im bued w ith a s e n s e o f o b l i g a t i o n t o t h e p ow ers t h a t b e , and
w ith th e s a c r e d n e s s o f t h e E m p ire. He s a i d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a l l C h r i s t
ia n s s h o u ld ta k e t h e c o u r s e o f p a s s iv e o b e d ie n c e . The p r o t e s t o f t h e
P r o t e s t a n t p a r t y a t S p ir e h a s a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t o t h e C o n fe s s io n o f
A u g sb u rg , *'As t h e p r o t e s t o f S p ir e em bodies t h e fu n d a m e n ta l p r i n c i p l e
o f p u b li c a n d p r i v a t e a c t i o n b y w h ich r e l i g i o u s l i b e r t y was re n d e r e d
p o s s i b l e a l i k e f o r n a t i o n s an d f o r i n d i v i d u a l s , so t h e A ugsburg Con
f e s s i o n em bodies i n t h e s im p le s t an d c l e a r e s t fo rm , t h e c a r d i n a l
2
t h e o l o g i c a l id e a s o f t h e re fo rm in g m ovem ent."
I n 1327 t h e I m p e r ia l arm y, com posed l a r g e l y o f f o o t s o l d i e r s udio
em braced t h e L u th e ra n f a i t h , c a p tu r e d a n d s a c k e d Rome an d f o r s e v e r a l
1
F i s h e r , o p . c i t . . 1u4
2
W ace, P r i n c i p l e s o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n . 2Ô.
M
m onths t h e Pope waS h e l d a p r i s o n e r . Not o n ly was C h a rle s e m b ro ile d
i n t r o u b l e i n I t a l y , b u t h e was a l s o f i g h t i n g F r a n c is I o v e r t h e
D u c h ie s o f M ila n and B u rg u n d y , an d was i n c o n tin u a l d r e a d o f T u rk is h
in v a s i o n . T h is f a c t o r h e lp e d t o em bolden an d s tr e n g t h e n t h e c a u s e o f
L u th e r . B ut when t h e E m peror g a in e d a c o m p le te v i c t o r y i n I t a l y , th e
C a th o lic p a r t y r e v iv e d i t s p o l i c y o f r e p r e s s i o n .
I t was t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s t h a t a r o u s e d C h a rle s* d e te r m in a tio n
t o s e t t l e t h e r e l i g i o u s q u e s ti o n i n Germany once an d f o r a l l . B ut t h e
in c o n v e n ie n c e o f k e e p in g t h e Pope i n c a p t i v i t y was a d i r e c t ch e c k u p o n
h im ; a n d , s in c e C lem ent 711 w ish e d t o h a v e F lo re n c e r e s t o r e d t o h i s
f a m i ly , a m ity ;w a s r e e s t a b l i s h e d b e tw e e n C h a rle s an d t h e P o p e . The
c o n f l i c t w ith P ra n c e was te r m in a te d b y t h e Pecvce o f C am bray; an d t h e
B n p e ro r was a t l a s t f r e e fro m a l l h i s e m b a rra s s m e n ts .
In t h e f a c e o f t h i s common d a n g e y , t h e Pope an d t h e B n p e ro r came
t o an a m ic a b le a g re e m e n t; a n d C h a rle s was g iv e n t h e I m p e r ia l crow n b y
t h e Pope a t B o lo g n a , F e b ru a ry 2 4 , Î5 5 0 . "The Pope an d t h e B n p e ro r
w ere a g r e e d t h a t t h e o b s t i n a t e a p o s t a t e s m ust b e made t o r e t u r n t o t h e
1
bosom o f t h e c h u r c h ." C lem ent V II r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e C a th o lic f a i t h
m u st b e r e s t o r e d and e n f o r c e d i f h i s pow er an d g lo r y a s h e a d o f t h e
Roman C a th o lic C hurch s h o u ld c o n t in u e ; a n d h e was w i l l i n g t o f u r t h e r
t h i s en d b y a n y m eans w ith i n h i s p o w er. A f te r h i s c o r o n a t io n , C h a rle s
V was f i l l e d w ith a s e n s e o f h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a s h e a d o f t h e H oly
Roman E m pire an d g u a r d ia n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c h u rc h . B ut h e was n o t a s
t ^
H a u s s e r, P e r io d o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n î 5 1 7 -1 6 4 8 . New E d ., 120,
18
o b d u ra te a s t h e Pope i n r e g a r d t o t h e r e f o r m e r s . He b e l ie v e d t h a t Vihen
t h e o u tw a rd b r e a c h e s w ere r e p a i r e d , i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y s h o u ld b e g a in e d
b y a g e n e r a l c o u n c il w hich s h o u ld a c c e d e t o t h e j u s t i f i a b l e dem ands
f o r c h u rc h r e f o m . He b e l i e v e d t h a t i t w o u ld b e b e t t e r t o h a v e a few
th o u s a n d h e r e t i c s i n t h e kingdom th a n a r e p e t i t i o n o f s to rm y c o u n c i l s ,
su c h a s th e one h e l d a t C o s t n i t z . C h a r le s , h o w e v e r, was d e te rm in e d
t o do a l l i n h i s pow er t o a i d t h e c a u s e o f t h e Pope an d s u rro u n d e d
b y S p a n is h n o b i l i t y a s w e ll a s t h e g r e a t p r i n c e s an d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
o f t h e a n p i r e , h e s e t o u t f o r th e c o u n c il d e te rm in e d t o p e r s u a d e ,
o v e ra w e , a n d c o e r c e t h e P r o t e s t a n t s i n t o abandonm ent o f t h e i r c a u s e .
A ugsburg was c h o s e n a s t h e c i t y i n w h ic h t o h o ld t h i s fam ous
D i e t . The P r o t e s t a n t s w ere o r d e r e d t o draw u p a s ta te m e n t o f t h e i r
b e l i e f , v h ic h w ould s e r v e a s a b a s i s f o r d i s c u s s i o n , h u t h e r , J u s t u s
J o n a s , M e la n c h th o n , an d J o h a n B ugenhagen w e re a p p o in te d t o d raw up t h i s
d o cu m en t. M e la n c h th o n , h o w ev er, a c t u a l l y w ro te t h e s ta te m e n t an d s e n t
i t to Coburg f o r L u th e r ’ s a p p r o v a l. On May 15 D u th e r w ro te to th e
E l e c t o r , " I h a v e r e a d M a s te r P h i l l i p ’ s A po lo g y — I t p le a s e s me w e ll f o r
1
I c a n n o t t r e a d so g e n t l y an d s o f t l y . " L u th e r d i d n o t a t t e n d t h e D ie t
o f A u g sb u rg . A c c o rd in g t o t h e E d ic t o f Worms h e was s t i l l a n o u tla w ,
so th e E l e c t o r a s k e d him t o s t a y a t th e c a s t l e o f C oburg. N e ith e r w ould
h e g iv e t h e c h a lle n g e o f a p p e a r in g i n p e r s o n s in c e h e knew t h e b a n
w ould b e d is c u s s e d a t t h e D ie t . He d id n o t re m a in , h o w e v e r, a t
1
K id d , D ocum ents I l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e C o n tin e n ta l D é fo rm a tio n . 2 5 6 .
19
C oburg i n c o n fid e n c e a n d i d l e n e s s . In t h e w ords o f L in d s a y , "T h ere
h e re m a in e d , w o r r ie d an d a n x io u s , c h a f in g l i k e a d ag ed e a g l e . He
f e a r e d t h a t M e la n c h th o n ’ s c o n c i l i a t i n g s p i r i t m ig h t make him b a r t e r
aw ay some i n d i s p e n s a b le r i g h t s o f e v a n g e l i c a l t r u t h ; a n d h e f e a r e d t h e
im p e tu o s ity o f t h e L an d g rav e o f H e s se , an d h i s w ell-k n o w n Z w in g lia n
1
s y m p a th ie s ,"
C h a rle s m eant t o com prom ise a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e a n d a s f a r a s h i s
c o n s c ie n c e w ould p e rm it h im , an d t o e f f e c t a p e a c e f u l s e t t l e m e n t .
I f t h i s f a i l e d , h e d e te rm in e d t o c r u s h t h e R e fo rm a tio n b y f o r c e . ’T ïe v e r
a th o u g h t c r o s s e d h i s m ind t h a t h e was a b o u t t o e n c o u n te r a g r e a t
s p i r i t u a l f o r c e w hose d e p th an d i n t e n s i t y h e was u n a b le t o m e a s u re ,
an d w h ich was s lo w ly c r e a t i n g a new w o rld unknown t o h im s e lf a n d h i s
2
c o n t em p o rar i e s . "
The D ie t was f o r m a lly o p en ed J u n e 2 9 , A s p e e c h fro m th e
th r o n e i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e A ssem bly w ould b e i n v i t e d t o d is c u s s arm
am ent a g a i n s t t h e T u rk s . E v ery o n e was a n x io u s t o s e t t l e t h e r e l i g
io u s d i f f e r e n c e s f i r s t b u t t h e p a p a l l e g a t e d e s i r e d t o s t i f l e t h e
r e l i g i o u s q u e s t i o n , an d w an ted t h e p r in c e s t o exam ine i t i n s e c r e t .
The m ore t h e E l e c t o r an d h i s a s s o c i a t e s d e s i r e d a p u b l i c c o n f e s s io n ,
t h e m ore t h e P o p e ’ s f r i e n d s d re a d e d p u b l i c i t y . The c a u s e o f P r o t
e s ta n t is m was now i n a d e l i c a t e p o s i t i o n . I f th e q u e s tio n s h o u ld b e
1
Lindsay, H istory o f th e Reformation. IJ »
2
Ibidk. 560.
20
s e t t l e d i n p r i v a t e , t h e p a p a l p a r t y w ould b e s u r e t o w in o u t ; w h ere
a s i f t h e C o n fe s s io n w ere g iv e n a p u b li c h e a r i n g t h e L u th e ra n c a u s e
w ould c e r t a i n l y g a in i n p o p u l a r i t y . "The C a th o lic s w an ted t o s h u t u p
t h e R e fo rm a tio n a s i n a dungeon an d t h e r e le a v e i t t o d i e , th i n k i n g
th e y w ould th u s g e t r i d o f i t m ore s u r e l y th a n b y l e a d in g i t t o th e
1
s c a f f o l d . " A c c o rd in g ly , t h e p a p a l p a r t y schem ed t o c irc u m v e n t t h e
P r o t e s t a n t p u r p o s e . V a ld e z , i n an a d d re S # t o M e la n c h th o n s a i d t h a t
t h e w hole c o n tr o v e r s y w as r e d u c i b le t o t h r e e p o i n t s , ( i ) th e s a c
ram en t o f t h e L o rd ’ s s u p p e r , ( 2 ) m a rr ia g e o f p a s t o r s , (5 ) t h e a b
o l i t i o n o f p r i v a t e m a s s e s . In c l o s i n g , h e s a i d , " I f we c o u ld a g r e e
on t h e s e a r t i c l e s i t w ould b e e a s y t o come t o an u n d e r s ta n d in g on t h e
2
o t h e r s . ” C h a rle s v/as charm ed w ith t h i s s u g g e s tio n , b u t Cam peggio
s a i d t h a t t h e a b o l i t i o n o f p r i v a t e m a sse s w ould c u t o f f t h e g r e a t e s t
re v e n u e s o f t h e C h u rch . D u rin g t h i s c o n tr o v e r s y M e la n c h th o n was
a lm o s t won o v e r t o t h e p a p a l d e s i r e f o r a s e c r e t c o n f e r e n c e ; b u t t h e
C h a n c e llo r an d E l e c t o r s to o d f ir m an d f i n a l l y d e f e a te d t h e w ily l e g a t e .
On J u n e 25 t h e D ie t m et i n t h e h a l l o f t h e E p is c o p a l p a l a c e , an d
h e r e t h e A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n v/as r e a d b y t h e Saxon C h a n c e llo r , D r.
C h r i s t i a n B ay er i n s u c h a lo u d c l e a r v o ic e t h a t i t W o,s h e a r d b y th e
th r o n g s g a th e r e d o u t s i d e ; f o r o n ly members o f t h e e p i s c o p a l c h a p te r
w ere a d m itte d t o t h i s s m a l le r ch am b er. The crow d t h r o n g i n g o u t s i d e
p ro c la im e d a g r e a t v i c t o r y f o r P r o t e s t a n t i s m . O nly n in e y e a r s b e f o r e
1
D*Aubigne. H istory o f th e Reformation o f th e S ix teen th Century. IV, Î58,
2
I b id ., 16 i .
21
a p o o r monk h a d s to o d a lo n e i n a g r e a t h a l l f o r t h e same c a u s e ;
now t h e fo re m o s t E l e c t o r s , P r in c e s an d c i t i e s w ere ch am p io n in g
t h a t same c a u s e .
A f t e r le n g th y c o n t r o v e r s i e s b e tw e e n t h e tw o p a r t i e s i n \d iie h
no s a t i s f a c t o r y a g r é m e n t was r e a c h e d , t h e E taperor p u b lis h e d t h e R e c e ss
o f A u g sb u rg , November 19, 1559, s a y in g t h a t th e y w ould b e g iv e n t i l l
A p r il 15 t o come t o te r m s , an d a f t e r t h » t t h e y w ould s u f f e r c o e r c io n
b y a rm s . T h is d e c i s i o n h a v in g b e e n r e n d e r e d , th e P r o t e s t a n t P r in c e s
w ith d re w .
The C o n fe s s io n o f A ug sb u rg h o ld s a n im p o rta n t p la c e i n a l l
P r o t e s t a n t f a i t h s t o - d a y . N im erous i n d i v i d u a l s a n d c h u rc h e s h a v e
a d o p te d v a r i a t i o n s o f o p in io n fro m i t on s p e c i a l p o i n t s . A l t h o u ^
i t was r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n i t s e f f e c t i t d id n o t a f f e c t th e c e n t r a l p r i n
c i p l e s fro m w h ich t h e w hole movement s t a r t e d . " F o r t h e f i r s t ti m e ,
g ays D r. V/ace, " i n t h e fu.ce o f a l l E u ro p e , t h e P r o t e s t a n t s w ere t o
d e c l a r e t h e t r u t h t h a t was i n th e m ; an d th e y a p p r e c ia te d t h e o b l i g a t i o n
o f s t a t i n g t h a t f a i t h i n t h e m an n er t h a t w ould b e s t commend i t t o th e
i
c o n s c ie n c e s a l i k e o f t h e i r a d v e r s a r i e s an d o f t h e i r f r i e n d s . ” I t
dem anded t h e in d e p e n d e n c e o f c h u rc h an d s t a t e ; i t r e j e c t e d t h e u s e o f
t h e sw ord i n t h e c h a s tis e m e n t o f h e r e t i c s . I t d id n o t fo u n d o r r e g
u l a t e t h e f a i t h , b u t s im p ly p r o f e s s e d i t . I t s g r e a t b u s in e s s # a s Ito
j u s t i f y t h e r e n o v a te d , an d n o t t o a t t a c k t h e d efo rm ed c h u rc h . On t h e
Wace, op. c i t . . 28 .
22
O th e r h an d t h e C a th o lic s to o k t h e f o llo w in g sta n d # "The d o c
um ent o u g h t t o h a v e r e t a i n e d i t s o r i g i n a l t i t l e o f A p o lo g y , f o r i t
i s a n a r t f u l a tte m p t t o p e rs u a d e t h e ïh ip e ro r an d e s t a t e s t h a t i n t h e
L u th e ra n d o c t r i n e t h e r e i s n o th i n g d is c r e p a n t w ith t h e s c r i p t u r e s ,
o r w ith t h e C a th o lic C h u rc h , o r w ith t h e Homan C hurch a s f a r a s t h a t
C hurch i s known fro m i t s w r i t e r s — I t h a s b e e n a p t l y te rm e d a p o l
i t i c a l cam paign d o cu m en t, c a l c u l a t e d t o im p re s s t h e e s t a t e s t h a t
t h e L u th e ra n s , th e m s e lv e s su p re m e ly i n t o l e r a n t to w a rd t h e C a th o lic s
s h o u ld b e p e r m i tt e d t o p ro c e e d i n p e a c e i n u p r o o ti n g t h e a n c ie n t
1
f a i t h . "
Thus f a r we h a v e shown t h a t th e R ece ss o f A u g sb u rg l e f t th e
r e l i g i o u s a f f a i r s o f Germany i n su c h a p r e c a r i o u s c o n d i tio n t h a t th e
P r o t e s t a n t p r i n c e s w ere a lm o s t f o r c e d t o d e v is e some m eth o d o f
d e f e n s e i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e f i f t e e n t h o f A p r i l , 1551, v h en C h a rle s
t h r e a t e n e d t o c o e r c e them b y f o r c e o f a rm s. And t h e a l l i a n c e w hich
t h e y fo rm e d , t h e League o f S c h m a lk a ld , was t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t o f th e
f o r e g o in g c o n d i t i o n s .
P o p e , " F a i t h , " C a th o lic E n c y c lo p e d ia , 7 ,
25
C h a p te r I I
HISTOEY OP THE LEA.CI3E OP SCHMALKALD IN CEHMÂÎTT, 155 M l 5 4 ?i
The s t a t u s o f t h e P r o te s ta n tis m o f Germany i n 1550 was i n a
v e r y q u e s ti o n a b le c o n d i t i o n . C h a rle s V e v i d e n t l y d e te rm in e d t o stam p
o u t t h e h e r e t i c a l s e c t o f L u th e r a n s , a n d t h e German p r in c e s w ere
j u s t a s d e te rm in e d t o d e fe n d t h e i r f a i t h . I t was n e c e s s a r y , t h e r e
f o r e , f o r t h e P r o t e s t a n t p r in c e s t o t a k e a d e f i n i t e l y d e f e n s iv e a t
t i t u d e a g a i n s t t h e w a r lik e th re o -t o f t h e Ih ip e ro r.
W ith t h i s th o u g h t i n m in d , t h e L a n d g ra v e , P h i l i p o f H e s s e , i n
d u c e d c e r t a i n o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t s t a t e s t o u n ite c i n a d e f e n s iv e
le a g u e a g a i n s t t h e C a th o lic f o r c e s h e a d e d b y t h e E n p e ro r. A sid e from
t h e t h r e a t o f t h e E m peror is s u e d i n th e form o f a R ece ss a t t h e D ie t
o f A u gsburg t o c o e rc e t h e P r o t e s t a n t f o r c e s b y arm s i f th e y h a d n o t
s u b m itte d t o h i s dem ands b y A p r il 15, 1551, t h e I m p e r ia l C o u n c il, t o
vdiich was co m m itted t h e t a s k o f e x e c u tin g t h e R e c e s s , commenced t h e i r
t a s k an d i n s t i t u t e d a l e g a l p r o c e s s a g a i n s t t h e P r o t e s t a n t s t a t e s f j
X
f o r h a v in g c o n f i s c a t e d c e r t a i n p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e C h u rch . I t s h o u ld
b e n o te d t h a t t h e D iv in e s o f W itte n b e r g , b e f o r e t h e f o r m a tio n o f t h e
L eag u e, ack n o w le d g ed t h a t t h e I m p e r ia l s t a t e s w ere j u s t i f i e d a s
2
m a g i s t r a t e s i n p r o t e c t i n g t h e i r s u b j e c t s fro m u n j u s t a g g r e s s io n .
1
E a s e , H is to r y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u rch , t r a n s l a t e d b y C. E . B lu m e n th a l
an d C. P . W ing, 5 8 5 .
2
I b id .. 505.
25
m i n o r i t y c o u ld b e bou n d b y a m a j o r i t y , an d so d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e
Î
E m pire was a f e d e r a t e d a r i s t o c r a c y o f in d e p e n d e n t s o v e r e ig n s .
H av in g s t a t e d t h e i r p o s i t i o n an d r e c o g n iz e d t h e i r g r ie v a n c e s , t h e
n e x t p aram ount q u e s ti o n was w h e th e r o r n o t , i n c a s e o f n e c e s s i t y ,
th e y s h o u ld ta k e up arm s a g a i n s t th e E n p e ro r. The th e o lo g ia n s
p r e s e n t i n t h e g a t h e r i n g w ere b i t t e r l y o p p o sed t o t h i s , b u t t h e
la w y e rs won o u t ; a n d t h e E l e c t o r o f Saxony p le d g e d t h e m en b ers o f
t h e m e e tin g f o r d e f e n s iv e m e a su re s a g a i n s t a n y an d e v e ry a g g r e s s o r .
The f i r s t p la n o f t h e L eague was s u b s c r ib e d t o by t h e E l e c t o r
o f S ax o n y , t h e L a n d g ra v e s o f H e s se , B ru n sw ic k , an d L u n e b e rg , W olf
g an g o f A n h a lt, t h e tw o c o u n ts o f M a n s f ie ld , a n d t h e c i t i e s o f
M agdeburg a n d B rem en, C o n s ta n c e , Meraraingen, L in d a u , an d S tr a s s b u r g
jo i n e d t h e League a t a se c o n d m e e tin g i n F e b ru a ry t o - a e t h e r w ith TJlm,
B ib e r a c h , I s n y , an d R e u tlin g e n . At th e same tim e t h e t h r e e Dukes
o f B ru n sw ic k , P h i l l i p , O tto , an d Francis#^ an d t h e c i t y o f L ubeck, jo im -
ed t h e League o f S c h m a lk a ld . At tw o c o n fe re n c e s h e l d a t N ord h au sen an d
F r a n k f o r t , i n D ecem ber, t h e m i l i t a r y d e t a i l s o f t h e L eague h a d b e e n
s e t t l e d , a ls o t h e r e s p e c t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e v a r io u s members
w ere f i x e d u p o n . B ut when t h e q u e s tio n a r o s e c o n c e m ia g t h e h e a d s h ip
o f t h e League i t was n o t so e a s i l y s e t t l e d . " F o r t h e f i r s t tim e t h e
f a t a l in g )o rt o f a c e r t a i n j e a lo u s y b etw ee n t h e E l e c t o r o f Saxony a n d
2
t h e L a n d g ra v e , P h i l i p o f H esse becam e a p p a r e n t ." The young Land—
1
P o l l a r d , " R e lig io u s War i n G erm any." C am bridge M odem H i s t o r y . I I , 215
2
H e n d e rso n , c i t . , 3 6 4 .
26
g ra v e was th e n a t u r a l h e a d , h u t t h e E l e c t o r o f S axony c o u ld n o t
b ro o k t h e id e a s o , i n t h e f a c e o f a s t r u g g l e th e y d iv i d e d t h e p r e s
id e n c y o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a s w e ll a s th e y c o u ld . P h i l i p a n d J o h n
w ere e a c h t o w ie ld c h i e f pow er i n a l t e r n a t e p e r io d s o f s i x m onths
e a c h , a n d t h e m i l i t a r y h e a d s h ip w ould b e a s s ig n e d a c c o r d in g ly a s t h e
t i d e o f w ar flo w e d n e a r t h e dom ains o f t h e one o r t h e o t h e r . As
c a n r e a d i l y b e s e e n t h i s a rra n g e m e n t was n e c e s s a r i l y weak a n d w ould
te n d to w a rd d is u n io n i n c a s e o f a c r i s i s .
In M arch a n o th e r m e e tin g o f t h e P r in c e s was h e l d a t S c h m a lk a ld e n ,
an d a t t h i s tim e th e fo rm a l c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld
1
was draw n up an d s ig n e d b y n in e p r i n c e s an d e le v e n c i t i e s . G o ttin g
e n , G o s la r , an d Eirabeck j o i n e d t h e L eague i n a lm o s t u n d is p u te d p o s s e s s
io n o f n o r th e r n G erm any, a n d w ith a f o r e i g n p o l i c y o f i t s own. A
s ta n d i n g arm y o f tw e lv e th o u s a n d men was v o te d ; an d a l l p e r s o n s vho
h a d a n t i - A u s t r i a n f e e l i n g s , ev en t h e C a th o lic i n r e l i g i o n , d rew c l o s e
t o t h e L eag u e. ” I t was v e r y l a r g e l y t h i s f e a r o f a n u n d u e g ro w th o f
th e A u s t r ia n h o u se i n G erm any t h a t p r e v e n te d t h e C a t h o lic s t a t e s , w ith
2
t h e i r o v erw h elm in g s u p e r i o r i t y , fro m c r u s h in g t h e P r o t e s t a n t L e a g u e ."
Due t o t h e i r re m a rk a b ly r a p i d g ro w th , h o w e v e r, an d t o t h e a b s o r b in g
f o r e i g n a f f a i r s in w n ich C h a rle s was c o n t i n u a l l y « n b r o i l e d , t h e P r o t
e s t a n t f a i t h re m a in e d S a fe an d u n d is tu r b e d i n Germany f o r a p e r i o d o f
1
S ee t h e A p p en d ix f o r a r e p r o d u c tio n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e
L eague i n 155 î •
2
P h ili p p s o n , Age o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n , t r a n s l a t e d u n d e r t h e s u p e r v is io n
o f H enry W rig h t, 119.
27
s i x y e a r s s u b je c t t o a n e x t e n s i o n o f tim e i f t h e P r in c e s so w ish e d
a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e f i r s t p e r i o d .
When L u th e r h e a r d o f t h i s a l l i a n c e a g a i n s t I m p e r ia l s o v e r e i g n i t y
h e a d o p te d t h e same a t t i t u d e t h a t h e h a d asa-umed a g a i n s t t h e P e a s a n ts
i n 1525 when th e y h a d d a re d t o o p p o se a u t h o r i ty * L u th e r was v e r y
s k e p t i c a l a b o u t t h e o u tco m e. M ost a c c o u n ts s t a t e t h a t h e w a s, ev en
now , a v i d l y d e s ir o u s o f p e a c e .. H ow ever, h e d id n o t f a i l t o a p p r e c i a t e
t h e f a c t t h a t L uthei% nl0ia was c e r t a i n l y bound f o r f a i l u r e u n l e s s some
u n fo re s b m n in c id e n t w ould s e r v e t o t u r n t h e E m peror fro m h i s p l a n s .
He i s q u o te d a s s a y in g , a t one ti m e , " I f w ar i s t o com e, l e t i t com e,
2
we h a v e lo n g enough p ra y e d a n d fo u g h t w ith t h e arm s o f t h e s p i r i t . ”
L u th e r , a lth o u g h d e m o c ra tic i n r e l i g i o n , p o s s e s s e d a m a rk e d ly f e u d a l
ty p e o f m ind i n r e g a r d t o p o l i t i c a l m a t t e r s . In h i s p o l i t i c a l p h i l
o so p h y , h e h e l d t h a t men who f o u ^ t a g a i n s t t h e i r k in g o r B n p e ro r
w ere h e r e t i c s . "He was a lw ay s f o r peace»—b u t now i t b e g a n t o b e im
p r e s s e d on h i s m ind t h a t p e a c e was im p o s s ib le w ith t h e e x i s t i n g g o v -
?
e m m e n t a n d t h e p r e s e n t a r r o g a n t E m p e ro r." N e v e r th e le s s , h e d e v o u tly
p ra y e d t h a t p e a c e m ig h t l a s t so lo n g a s h e l i v e d .
C lem ent V II w as Pope a t t h i s tim e ; an d i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e r e was o u tw a rd harm ony b e tw e e n him a n d C h a rle s ¥ , i t i s f a i r l y
e v id e n t t h a t h e d i s l i k e d t h e g ro w in g pow er o f t h i s te m p o ra l p r i n c e .
1
See p a g e 10.
2
Zimmerman. A P o p u la r H i s t o r y o f G erm any. IV , 1455*
5
G if f o r d , G erm any. H er P e o p le an d T h e ir S t o r y . 2 4 1 .
26
an d c e r t a i n l y h e r e s i s t e d a l l I m p e r ia l p r e s s u r e t i l l h i s d e a th on
S ep te m b er 2 5 , 1554, T h is was f o r t u n a t e f o r t h e L u th e ra n p r i n c e s ;
h a d C h a rle s b e e n r e i n f o r c e d b y a s u b m is s iv e Pope a f f a i r s m ig h t h a v e
tu r n e d o u t v e r y d i f f e r e n t l y f o r t h e P r o t e s t a n t p a r t y . T h is a t t i t u d e
o f C lem ent i s c l e a r l y p ro v e n by a t l e a s t tw o i n s t a n c e s . I n 1552 h e
d e l i b e r a t e l y d e la y e d a c o u n c il w ith C h a rle s b y p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n ; an d
on O c to b e r 2 7 , 1555 h e fo rm ed a n a l l i a n c e b e tw e e n h i s n i e c e , C a th -
1
e r i n e d e ly fed ici, an d P r in c e H enry o f O r le a n s , so n o f F r a n c is I ,
T h is a l l i a n c e i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t i t shows t h e i n c l i n a t i o n s
o f F r a n c is I , H e, h i m s e l f , h a d b e e n a c a n d id a te f o r t h e p o s i t i o n o f
E m peror i n 1519, an d h e was j e a l o u s o f t h e r i s i n g g ro w th o f pow er
w h ich C h a rle s V c la im e d . T h e r e f o r e , h e was a lw ay s a n x io u s t o a l l y
h im s e lf w ith an y p a r t y t h a t w asb o p p o sed t o t h e E n p e ro r, a lth o u g h when
h i s own p o s i t i o n was t h r e a t e n e d h e d id on s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s a l l y w ith
C h a r le s .
F r a n c is I was v e r y e l u s i v e i n h i s d e a l in g s w ith th e S c h ra a lk a ld ic
L eag u e. He made s e v e r a l p ro m is e s t o a i d them i n e v e n t o f w a r f a r e w ith
t h e E n p e ro r. H is f i r s t a l l i a n c e w ith t h e L eague was on May 2 6 , 1552,
when a fo rm a l t r e a t y was s ig n e d a t S c h e y e m b etw ee n F r a n c e , B a v a r ia ,
S ax o n y , an d H e s se . B ut t h i s a l l i a n c e "d re w a p r o t e s t fro m L u th e r
w hose n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g s r e v o l t e d a t a L eague w ith F r a n c e , h i s c o u n -
2
t r y ’ s h e r e d i t a r y f o e . " H is w ords fo u n d an echo in t h e h e a r t s o f
1
K id d , D ocum ents I l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e C o n tin e n ta l R efo rm at i o n . 5 u 4 .
2
M e n z e l, Germany fro m t h e E a r l i e s t P e r i o d . I I , 9^5*
29
tîie E l e c t o r s ; t h e F re n c h p l e n i p o t e n t i a r i e s w ere d is m is s e d , an d a
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w ith t h e E m peror was e f f e c t e d a t N urem berg.
Had C h a rle s b e e n unham pered b y d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a l l o th e r p a r t s
o f h i s kingdom i t i s d o u b tf u l w h e th e r P r o t e s t a n t i s m w ould h a v e
s u r v iv e d . As i t w as, C h a rle s was c o n t i n u a l l y h am p ered w ith t h e
u p r i s i n g s a n d r e v o l t s i n h i s v a s t t e r r i t o r i e s . One o f h i s m ain
d i f f i c u l t i e s was w ith t h e T u rk s who w ere u n i t e d u n d e r t h e a b le
le a d e r s h ip o f S olym on. T h e ir s t r e n g t h w as tre m e n d o u s , an d i t
r e q u ir e d th e c o n tin u o u s e x e r t i o n o f C h a rle s t o k e e p them from e n
c r o a c h in g on h i s t e r r i t o r y an d t h a t o f h i s b r o t h e r F e r d in a n d . T h is
w as one o f t h e m a in c a u s e s f o r th e T r e a ty o f N urem berg i n 15 5 2 . I n
t h i s y e a r t h e T u rk s w ere p r e s s i n g h a r d u p o n t h e f r o n t i e r o f C har
le s * E m pire a n d , a s a r e s u l t , C h a rle s was f o r c e d t o e n l i s t t h e a i d
o f t h e German p r i n c e s i n o r d e r t o r e p u l s e th e m . R e p r e s e n ta tiv e s
m et f i r s t a t R e g e n sb e rg on A p r il 17; b u t t h e D ie t was t r a n s f e r r e d
1
t o N urem berg on J u l y 2 3 , 1332. The League o f S c h m a lk a ld w as t h e
o n ly f e d e r a l pow er i n t h e Eîjg)&?ev i t a p p e a re d h a z a rd o u s t o t h e
E m peror t o e n t e r a s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t th e T u r k s , n o t know ing w h e th e r
2
o r n o t h e c o u ld r e l y on t h e German p r i n c e s . I t was so e v id e n t
t h a t h e was a n x io u s t o c o n c lu d e a p e a c e w ith them t h a t L u th e r i n a
l e t t e r t o th e Crown P r i n c e , J o h n F r e d e r ic k , s a i d , " I am a f r a i d i f
1
8 c h a f f , 0£ . c i t . . 7 u6 .
2
H ausser, Period o f th e Reformation, passim .
50
we l e t su c h an o p p o r tu n i ty f o r p e a c e ^ b y , so good a one w i l l
1
n e v e r come a g a i n ," T h is o p in io n i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e o p in io n
o f t h e P r i n c e s , so on J u l y 2 3 » t h e P e a c e o f N urem berg was c o n c lu d e d ,
" i n w h ich b o th p a r t i e s m ade c o n c e s s io n s i n o r d e r to u n i t e a v ig —
2
o ro u s r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t t h e T u r k s ," By t h i s p e a c e , a l l a d h e r e n ts
t o t h e A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n w ere p e r m itte d t o r e t a i n a n d p r a c t i c e
t h e i r f a i t h , "B u t t h e g r e a t d e f e c t was t h e a b s e n c e o f an y d e f i n i t i o n
o f t h e r e l i g i o u s c a s e s w ith w h ich C h a rle s * r;c o u rttw a s p r o h i b i t e d fro m
5
d e a l i n g , " C h a rle s s a i d i t was t h e b u s in e s s o f t h i s c o u r t t o d e t e r
m ine w hat was and was n o t a r e l i g i o u s c a s e , and s in c e t h e r e was a
m a j o r i t y o f C a th o lic s i n t h e c o u r t i t a s s e r t e d j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r a l l
4
c a s e s ,
"T he P r o t e s t a n t s to o k i t f o r a p erm a n en t p e a c e an d d id n o t
im a g in e t h a t an y s e r i o u s a tte m p t w ould b e made to c o e r c e them b a c k
i n t o t h e Roman C a th o lic C h u rc h ; b u t t h e E n p e ro r r e g a r d e d i t m e re ly
3
a s a t r u c e , " N e v e r th e le s s , p e a c e was m a in ta in e d m ore o r l e s s i n
t a c t f o r a p e r io d o f f o u r t e e n y e a r s an d th u s g r e a t l y b e n e f i t e d t h e
g ro w th o f t h e German R e fo rm a tio n , I t a l s o e f f e c t i v e l y r e p u ls e d t h e
1
M c G if f e r t, M a r tin L u th e r . The Man an d H is V/ork. 3 3 2 .
2
H a u s s e r, o p . c i t . . 124.
P o l l a r d , " R e lig io u s War i n G erm any," C am bridge M odem H i s t o r y , I I , 2 1 9 %
4
The c o u r t condem ned S t r a s s b u r g , N u m b e rg , Duke E r n e s t o f L u n e b e rg ,
a n d t h e M a rg ra v e , G eorge o f B ra n d e n b u rg . B ut on J a n . 3 0 , 1334
t h e P r o t e s t a n t P r in c e s f o r m a lly r e p u d ia te d t h i s c o u r t a s a
p a r t i s a n b o d y .
3
H a u s s e r, opl c i t . . 179.
31
T u rk s b y m aking i t p o s s i b l e f o r I t a l y , S p a in , an d Germany t o th ro w
e i g h t y th o u s a n d men i n t o t h e f i e l d an d f o r c e Solym on t o r e t u r n t o
t
C o n s ta n tin o p le .
A f te r t h i s e v e n t t h e S c h m a lk a ld !c L eague e n la r g e d r a p i d l y . By
1554 t h e L eague h a d triu m p h e d i n N a s sa u , H an o v er, a n d F r a n k f u r t . And
on J u l y 22 o f th e same y e a r , A u g sb u rg e n t e r e d t h e L eag u e. Upon th e
d e a th o f Duke G eorge in 1334, P o m e ra n ia j o i n e d th e P r o t e s t a n t p a r t y .
T h is was e f f e c t e d b y t h e a g re e m e n t o f Kammin, A ugust 1534, b e tw e e n
h i s s o n , Duke P h i l i p o f P om m ern-W olgast, an d h i s b r o t h e r , Duke
2
B am im o f P o m m e rn -S te tlin . I n A l b e r t i n e S axony t h e o ld f a i t h was
e n f o r c e d t i l l 1339, a lth o u g h t h e d e v o u t P r o t e s t a n t s sim p ly w a lk e d
o v e r t h e b o u n d a ry t o E r n e s ti n e S axony an d t h e r e a t te n d e d t h e L u th e ra n
C h u rch . B ut a f t e r t h e d e a th o f Duke G eorge on A p r il 17, 133P, Duke
H enry an d t h e W itte n b e r g r e fo rm e rs s u p p o r te d b y t h e L eag u e, a p p e a re d
i n D re sd e n an d a c c o m p lish e d t h e r e fo rm . In B ra n d e n b u rg t h e E l e c t o r
Jo a c h im was o p p o se d t o L u th e ra n is m . B ut when h e d ie d i n 1539 a P r o t
e s t a n t com m unity h a d a l r e a d y b e e n s e c r e t l y fo rm ed and h i s so n s r e f u s e d
3
t o c o n tin u e h i s p o l i c y . M e c k le n b u rg -S c h w e rin was re fo rm e d b y t h e
Duke M agnus, B ish o p o f S c h w e rin . B runsw ick-C o 1 e n b u rg j o i n e d t h e League
i n 1540.
I n W urtem berg t h e p e o p le w ere t i r e d o f t h e H ap sb u rg r u l e . The
1
P h i l i p p s o n , o p . c i t . . 121.
2
K id d , 0^ . c l t . . 3 0 5 . The R e fo rm a tio n was f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h i s
c o u n tr y b y t h e r e c e s s o f t h e D ie t a t T re p to w , D ecem ber 13, a n d b y
a v i s i t a t i o n fo llo w e d b y a c h u rc h o r d in a n c e fro m B u g e n h a g e n iin 153>
3
H a u s s e r, c i t . . 189. The y o u n g e r s o n , t n e M a rg ra v e , J o h n , o p e n ly
d e c l a r e d h im s e lf and g r a n te d u n li m it e d freed o m t o t h e new d o c trin e *
The o t h e r s o n . E l e c t o r Jo a c h im I I , re m a in e d a C a th o lic f o r y e a r s ,
b u t a llo w e d h i s p e o p le freed o m o f r e l i g i o n .
32
S w abian L eague an d th e I m p e r ia l tr o o p s w ere o c c u p y in g t h e c o u n try
an d F e rd in a n d was a c t i n g a s r u l e r . P h i l i p o f H e sse was d i s s a t i s f i e d
w ith t h e Peu.ce o f N urem berg, and so a l l i e d h im s e lf w ith W urtem berg
a g a i n s t t h e r u l e r F e r d in a n d .
Thus i t came a b o u t t h a t i n . t h e c i r c l e s o f t h e L eague
o f S c h m a lk a ld t h e p ro j^ ect r ip e n e d o f r e s t o r i n g t h e
Dukedom o f W urtem berg. The p e o p le w ere s u l l e n l y r e b e l
l i n g u n d e r t h e o p p r e s s io n o f a f o r e i g n y o k e , an d P r o t
e s ta n t is m h a d s p r e a d i t s b ra n c h e s th r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n try
" “ “ • f h e p r o p o s a l t o r e s t o r e t h e l e g i t i m a t e h o u se was
made w ith t h e u n d e r s ta n d in g t h a t i t w ould ad d t o t h e
P r o t e s t a n t r a n k s , a n d form a n o th e r member f o r t h e League
o f S c h m a lk a ld . l
F r a n c is a l s o a id e d i n th e r e s t o r a t i o n . He an d t h e Pope m et a t
M a r s e i l l e s , " n o r was i t w ith o u t t h e p e r m is s io n o f t h e Pope t h a t
F r a n c is e n t e r e d i n t o an a l l i a n c e w ith t h e German P r o t e s t a n t s , and
a d v a n c e d one h u n d re d th o u s a n d d o l l a r s i n a i d o f t h e a tte m p t made b y
U l r i c h , t h e young Duke o f W urtem berg, to r e g a i n h i s d u c h y , a t t h i s
2
tim e in c o r p o r a te d w ith A u s t r i a . " Thus t h e a l l i a n c e b e tw e e n t h e
3
F re n c h k in g an d t h e L eague o f S ch m a lk a ld h a d b eg u n t o b e a r f r u i t .
F r a n c is th e n u n i t e d w ith P h i l i p o f H e s s e , a n d s u c c e e d e d i n d e f e a t
in g F e rd in a n d a t L a u ffe n . " F e rd in a n d , i s o l a t e d i n h i s b r o t h e r ’ s
a b s e n c e ," sa y s H e n d e rso n , "a n d f e a r i n g a p o p u la r u p r i s i n g vdiioh m ig k t
h a v e c o s t h im , n o t m e re ly W urtem berg, b u t a l s o h i s crow n, a s k in g o f
t h e Homans, s ig n e d t h e T r e a ty o f K adan, J u n e t5 3 4 ." "® ie p e a c e o f
1
H a u s s e r, og,. c i t . . 1o2.
2
Menzel, o ^ l c i t . , ? u 4 . *
^Eohertson, H istory o f the Heign of t ^ m peror , Charles V, 250.
H eu flerso n . S h o rt H is to r y o f SeCTg5£. I»
53
K adan, may b e r e g a r d e d , a s i t a p p e a r s t o m e ," sa y s L eo p o ld Von
R an k e, " a s t h e se c o n d g r e a t ep o c h i n t h e r i s e o f a P r o t e s t a n t pow er
1
i n G erm any." At a n y r a t e U lr ic h was r e i n s t a t e d ^ an d t h e le a g u e o f
S c h m a lk a ld was e n r ic h e d b y a v a l u a b le o u t p o s t . A c c o rd in g t o t h e
t r e a t y , F e rd in a n d was f o r c e d t o q u a sh a l l p r o c e e d in g s i n t h e R e ic h -
2
sk a m m e rg e ric h t a g a i n s t t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic a l l i e s . The Duchy a l s o was
3
t o r e v e r t t o t h e H ap sb u rg s i f t h e r e e v e r f a i l e d t o b e a m a le h e i r .
The im p o rta n c e o f t h e r e c o v e r y o f W urtem berg c a n h a r d l y b e o v e r
e s ti m a t e d . "W urtem berg c o n s e q u e n tly , fo rm ed a p o in t o f u n io n b e tw e e n
4
th e L u th e ra n s i n t h e n o r t h , an d t h e S w is s ." " I t s c o n v e r s io n w as o f
im p o rta n c e n o t m e re ly b e c a u s e i t d ro v e a wedge o f L u th e ra n is m i n t o
U pper G erm any, b u t a l s o b e c a u s e i t s tw o r e f o r m e r s , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e
B u c e ria n an d s t r i c t l y L u th e ra n ty p e o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m w ere u n i t e d Aug
u s t 2 , 1334 b y t h e C oncord o f W itte n b e rg u pon a d o c t r i n e o f t h e E u -
5
c h a r l s t ."
O th e r s t a t e s an d c i t i e s j o i n i n g t h e L eague w ere N urem b erg , S t r a s s
b u r g , T h u r in g ia , t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e G u e lp h s, t h e B is h o p r ic o f Mag
d e b u rg , H a l b e r s t a d t , N aum burg, H ila s h e im , E a s t F r i e s e la n d , t h e H anse
to w n s , H o l s t e i n , S c h le s w ig , S i l e s i a , a n d P r u s s i a . The s t a t e s t h a t
1
R an k e, H is to r y o f t h e P o p e s , t r a n s l a t e d b y E . F o s t e r , I , 9 4 .
2
P o l l a r d , " C o n f lic t o f C re e d s a n d P a r t i e s i i n G erm any," C am bridge
M odem H i s t o r y . I I , 232 .
3 .
T h is c l a u s e was a b r o g a te d a t t h e t r e a t y o f P r e s s b u r g i n W0 3 *
4
M e n z e l, o p . c i t . . 9 0 3 .
3
K id d , D ocum ents I l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e C o n tin e n ta l R e fo rm a tio n . 3 J 3 *
34
remained closed to Lutheranism were Austria, Bavaria, the Palatinate
I
and Rhenish Electorates, Brunswick, and the Archbishopric of Cologne.
The importance of the League of Schmalkald lay less in the num
ber of its adherents than in their differences of rank, belief, and
geographical situation. Princes combined with cities north and south,
in defense of a common cause. The combination was aiaed by the death
of Zwingli, October n, 1351. His death set upper Germany free for
alliance with lower Germany. "Germany had notr another center besides
2
the Diets." "What made the Schmalkaldic League es^/ecially dangerous
to Charles 7," says Henderson, "was the fact that a rallying point
was thus given for all his enemies, Protestant and Catholic, domestic
3
and foreign.”
Paul III proposed that a Diet be held at Mantua but the Prot
estants objected to this vigorously. They insisted on their original
demand for the council to be held on German soil. Due to their re
sistance the plan fell through and the council did not materialize.
This fact caused the members of the Schmalkaldic League to realize
the importance of their union. So in light of this fact they met at
Schmalkalden on December 12, 1353, and there renewed the League for
1
The archbishop, Hermann Ton Weid, was resolved to carry out the
Reformation, and was supported by the Inferior clergy and the
people. The decision was long in the balance and the Enperor
was finally forced to adopt serious measures.
2
Kidd, OP. cit.. 501.
3
Henderson, op. c i t . . 5 6 3 .
35
ten years. The League next endeavored to attract new members into
its ranks. Accordingly, it promised to admit all who would sub
scribe to the Confession of Augsburg and it formally sanctioned
the entrance of Wurtemberg, Pomerania, Anhalt, Augsburg, Frank
fort, Hanover, and Kept en. It also renewed their repudiation of
2
the court, or Reichskammergerieht, as a partisan body. The
actual signing of the new document did not occur till September,
1 5 3 6; and the names appended thereto were as follows: John, Elector
of Saxony; Ernest, Duke of Brunswick; Philip, Landgrave of Hesse;
Ulrich, Duke of Wurtemberg; Barnim, and Philip, Dukes of Pomerania;
John, George, end Joachim, Princes of Anhalt; Gebhard, and Albret,
Counts of Mansfield; William, Count of Nassau; and the cities
Strassburg, Nuremberg, Constance, Ulm, Magdeburg, Bremen, Suetlingen,
Hailbron, Memmingen, Lindau, Camp en, Isna, Bibrac, Windsheim, Aug
sburg, Frankfort, Esling, Brunswick, Goslar, Hanover, Gottingen,
3
Bimbech, Hamburg, and Minden.
The Schmalkaldic League held a conference at Schmalkalden in
February, 1537, as a result of the agitation by the Catholic for a
religious council. Luther was in favor of having the council on
Italian soil, but the majority of the princes were bitterly opposed
1
See the Appendix for the Constitution of the League in 1535*
2
Pollard, op. cit., 233*
3
Robertson, op. c i t . . 251.
56
to the project. At the request of the Elector of Saxony, Luther had
drawn up a set of Articles which were to he the program of the Prot
estants in case they should appear before a council. This statement,
known afterwards as the Articles of Schmalkald, emphasizes the
utter hopelessness of any reconciliation with the Papacy. The
Articles declared that an Italian council was unacceptable to the
Protestants; and requested the Emperor without the aid and sanction
of the Pope to convoke a free and unbiased council on-German soil.
The reason for having the Articles drawn up was to restate the
Augsburg Confession in a much more emphatic and determined tone.
Luther in a letter to the Elector, John Frederick, on January 3, I3 3 7,
said, "Due to my weakness, caused by Satan I am sure, I was several
days over them instead of one as I hoped.— — Therefore your Grace will
know how far such Articles may be accepted by them, for we do not wish
them to be burdensome to any, for each must be left free to adopt them
1
or not, as he pleases;" Luther did not stay at the Council till it
closed, for he became seriously ill while in Schmalkalden but as he
left the council he said, "May the Lord fill you with Grace, and
2
hatred for the Pope."
The Articles themselves, whatever their intention, were in
striking contrast to the Confession of Augsburg. In fact they made
1
Carrie, (translator) Letters of Martin Lather. 339#
2
P h ilip p son , Age o f th e Reform ation. 176.
37
no e f f o r t w h a te v e r t o c o n c i l i a t e t h e i r o p p o n en ts* They m ade f o u r
1
p r i n c i p a l dem ands: ( l ) r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e d o c t r i n e s o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n
h y f a i t h o n ly ; ( 2 ) a b o l i t i o n o f m ass a s a good w o rk ; ( 3 ) a l i e n a t i o n
o f f o u n d a tio n s f o r p r i v a t e m a s s e s ; (4 ) re m o v a l o f t h e p r e t e n s i o n s
o f t h e Pope t o h e a d s h ip o f th e u n i v e r s a l c h u r d i. The A r t i c l e s c o v e r
tw e n t y - e ig h t p o r t f o l i o p a g e s , an d a r e d iv i d e d i n t o t h r e e d e f i n i t e
2
p a r ts * P a r t one c o n ta in s f o u r c o n c is e a r t i c l e s r e s p e c t i n g God, t h e
T r i n i t y , an d t h e i n c a r n a t i o n , a s c e n s i o n , an d p a s s io n o f C h r is t* P a r t
tw o a l s o c o n t a in s f o u r a r t i c i . e s , c o n c e rn in g J u s t i f i c a t i o n , M ass and
S a in t w o rs h ip , e c c l e s i a s t i c a l an d m o n k ish e s ta b l i s h m e n t s , a n d t h e
c la im s o f t h e Pope* P a r t t h r e e c o n ta in s f i f t e e n a r t i c l e s , a n d c o n
c e r n s s i n , la w , r e p e n ta n c e , g o s p e l, b a p tis m , t h e sa c ra m e n t o f a l t a r ,
k e y s , c o n f e s s io n , e x c o m m u n ic a tio n , o r d i n a t i o n , c e l ib a c y o f t h e c le rg %
c h u r c h e s , good w o rk s, m o n a s tic vow s, a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r s i n .
The S c h m a lk a ld A r t i c l e s f l a t l y c o n t r a d i c t t h e C o n fe s s io n o f
A u g sb u rg i n m any p l a c e s . I n A r t i c l e XXIY o f t h e C o n fe s s io n one r e a d ^ ,
"We a r e u n j u s t l y c h a rg e d w ith h a v in g a b o l is h e d t h e m a ss. W ith o u t
b o a s t i n g , we may s a y , t h e m ass i s o b s e rv e d b y u s w ith g r e a t e r d e v o tio n
3
an d e a r n e s t n e s s th a n o u r o p p o s e r s ;" W h e re a s, i n t h e A r t i c l e s o f
S c h m a lk a ld , P a r t I I , A r t i c l e I I , one r e a d s , "T he P o p is h m ass i s t h e
1
S m ith . Age o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n . 121.
2
Ton M osheim , I n s t i t u t e s o f E c c l e s i a s t i c a l H is to r y . A n c ie n t an d
M odem . 2nd e d . , t r a n s l a t e d by Jam es M urdock, I I I , 5 ^ .
3
C o n fe s s io n o f A u g sb u rg , t r a n s l a t e d b y J o i n t C om m ittee o f G e n e ra l
S y n o d , 24.
36
g r e a t e s t , a n d m ost h o r r i d a b o m in a tio n — -and y e t i t h a s becom e t h e
1
c h i e f an d m ost s p le n d i d o f a l l t h e P o p is h i d o l a tr i e s .* *
The S c h m a lk a ld A r t i c l e s w ere s u p p le m e n te d b y a t r e a t i s e on
2
p a p a l a n d e p i s c o p a l pow er b y M e la n c h th o n . T h is b r i e f t r e a t i s e on
t h e pow er an d p rim a c y o f t h e Pope was f o r m a lly a p p ro v e d b y t h e
c o u n c il and ap p en d e d t o t h e a r t i c l e s . " I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t , " s a y s
W a lk e r,, i n h i s H is to r y o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n , " n o t o n ly a s e x p r e s s in g
t h e s t r o n g l y a n t i - p a p a l s p i r i t o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t s , b u t a s r e v e a l
in g t h e i r i n c r e a s i n g c o n v i c tio n t h a t no r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w ith t h e o ld
3
c h u rc h was p o s s i b le .* ’ The f o llo w in g s t a t a n e n t s a p p e a r i n t h e i n -
4
tr o d u c tiO n t o t h e t r e a t i s e : -
Thé Popes d e fe n d G o d le ss r i t e s an d i d o l a t r y , — t h e Pope
a r r o g a t e s t o h im s e lf t h e r i g h t t o a l t e r t h e d u c t r i n e o f
C h r i s t . — He e v en c la im s r i g h t s o v e r t h e s o u ls o f t h e
d e p a r t e d , — He m akes h im s e lf God f o r h e r e c o g n iz e s no
a u t h o r i t y o v e r h im .— - A ll t h e f a i t h f u l m a st t h e r e f o r e
c o u rs e him an d r e g a r d h i s te a c h in g s a s t h e d e v i l ’ s d o c t r i n e s .
The S c h m a lk a ld ic A r t i c l e s w ere t h e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a cam paign
a g a i n s t a n enemy w ith whom no com prom ise was deem ed p o s s i b l e . A ll
d e l i c a c y to w a rd s t h e C a th o lic s was d is p e n s e d w i t h ; a n d no e f f o r t
w as made w h a ts o e v e r, t o c o n c i l i a t e t h e i r o p p o n e n ts . The E l e c t o r
o f S axony was d e s ir o u s o f h a v in g t h e a d o p te d b u t "M e la n c h th o n
1
Ton M osheim , o p . . c i t . , 3 8 .
2
W ils o n , P h i l i p M e la n c h th o n . 1 4 9 1 -1 5 6 0 . 1u3.
3
W a lk e r. The R e fo rm a tio n . 194-193#
4
G r i s a r , L u th e r . E d. b y L u ig i C a p p a d e lta , t r a n s l a t e d b y E.M . Lamond,
I I I . 439 #
59
h a d . i t s h e lv e d , f o r f e a r i t w ould d e s tr o y t h e harm ony b e tw e e n
1
t h e tw o w in g s o f t h e German P r o t e s t a n t p a r t y . " L u th e r was n e v e r
t o l d o f t h e f a t e o f h i s A r t i c l e s an d t h e n e x t y e a r h e h ad them
p u b lis h e d a s t h e o f f i c i a l p la tf o r m o f t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld .
S in c e t h a t ti m e , t h e y h a v e a t t a i n e d t h e d i g n i t y o f a d o c t r i n a l
2
sym bol o f t h e L u th e ra n c h u rc h .
Ask i n t e r e s t e d v i s i t o r a t t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic C o n fe re n c e i n 1357
was D r. M a th ia s H e ld , t h e I m p e r ia l v i c e - c h a n c e l l o r . I n t h e y e a r
f o ll o w i n g , due t o h i s e n e r g e t i c w ork and o r g a n i z a t i o n , h e co n
sum m ated a le a g u e among t h e C a th o lic e s t a t e s , c a l l e d t h e L eague
o f N urem berg. The im m ed iate c a u s e f o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h i s
L eague was t h e f l a g r a n t r e l i g i o u s d is c o r d b e tw e e n t h e C a th o lic
a n d P r o t e s t a n t p a r t i e s . A n o th e r c a u s e was t h e f a i l u r e o f p la n s
f o r a c o u n c i l t o m a t e r i a l i z e . The C a th o lic p a r t y , a l s o , was d e - -
^ e rm in e d t o e n f o r c e th e p r o v is io n s o f th e P e a c e o f N urem berg.
H e ld dem anded t h a t t h e P r o t e s t a n t s s h o u ld su b m it t o t h e p a p a l
c o u n c il a n d t o t h e d e c r e e s o f t h e Suprem e C o u rt. A c c o rd in g ly , " h e
ru s h e d fro m one C a th o lic c o u r t t o a n o th e r i n c i t i n g o r u r g in g them
3
on t i l l , on J u n e 10, 133Ô, t h e L eague o f N urem berg was fo rm e d .”
T h is L eague was i n d i r e c t o p p o s iti o n to t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L e a g u e ,
1
M cGif f e r t . M art i n L u th e r ; The Man a n d H is W ork. 555#
2
I b i d J , 5 5 5 .
5
Hausser, Period o f th e Reform ation. 186.
40
a n d was com posed o f t h o s e C a th o lic s t a t e s i n Germany a n d A u s t r i a
t h a t f e a r e d t h e P r o t e s t a n t League# The m em bers w e re G eorge o f
S ax o n y , H enry an d E r i c , D ukes o f B ru n sw ic k , A lb r e t o f B ra n d e n b u rg ,
t h e B a v a ria n D u k es, K in g F e r d in a n d , an d t h e A rc h b ish o p o f S a lz b u rg .
P o l l a r d i n h i s a c c o u n t i n t h e C am bridge M odem H is to r y s a y s , " I t s
o r g a n i z a t i o n was a f a i t h f u l co p y o f t h a t o f t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L ea g u e.”
I t was p r o f e s s e d l y d e f e n s iv e a n d i t s d e te r m in a tio n t o e x e c u te t h e
d e c r e e s o f t h e R e ic h s k a m m e rg e rie h t, w hich t h e L eague o f S ch m a lk a ld
h a d r e p u d i a t e d , a lm o s t p r e c i p i t a t e d w a r. The" L eague was n o t e x a c t l y
w hat t h e E m peror h a d v /a n te d . He r e a l i z e d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f k e e p in g
t h e P r o t e s t a n t L eague on h i s s i d e an d i n a l e t t e r t o h i s s i s t e r ,
M ary, s a i d , "As t h i n g s s ta n d i n G erm any, we m ust t r y t o r e t a i n
2
e v e ry f r i e n d s h i p t h e r e t h a t we c a n ."
The L eague was a g r e a t m is ta k e an d p ro v e d t o b e a n u t t e r f a i l
u r e . I t was a n a g reœ n en t w ith o u t m oney o r arm s— o n ly o n p a p e r . Duke
G eorge o f S axony d ie d i n 1339 an d h i s b r o t h e r H en ry in tr o d u c e d
L u th e ra n is m . Jo a c h im o f B ra n d e n b u rg a l s o d ie d a n d , i n a few y e a r s ,
H enry o f B ru n sw ick was t h e o n ly one l e f t i n t h e L ea g u e.
The P r o t e s t a n t E s t a t e s f e a r i n g an u n e x p e c te d a t t a c k fro m t h e
N u rm b e rg L eague a n d t h e I m p e r ia l f o r c e s m et a t F r a n k f o r t i n F e b -
1
1
P o l l a r d , " C o n f lic h o f C re e d s a n d P a r t i e s i n G erm any," C am bridge
M odem H i s t o r y . Î I , 23 5 #
2
Hausser, op. c i t . . 187.
4i
r u a r y , i3 3 9 , i n a n a tte m p t t o f o r e s t a l l t h e C a th o lic p a r t y . The
P r o t e s t a n t s dem anded a p e rm a n e n t p e a c e f o r a l l imho m ig h t h e r e a f t e r
a d h e re t o t h e A u g sh u rg C o n fe s s io n h u t t h e m o d e ra te A rc h b ish o p Lund
who r e p r e s e n t e d t h e C a th o lic p a r t y was d e te rm in e d t o d o s e t h e d o o r
o f r e l i g i o u s freed o m t o E n g la n d , S e M a r ^ i P r u s s i a , R ig a , a n d C le v e s .
An a g re e m e n t was re a c h e d A p r il 19, î 33 9 . A t r u c e s h o u ld e x i s t f o r
s i x m onths b e tw e e n th e tw o p a r t i e s , an d a l l h o s t i l e a c t i o n a n d l e g a l
Î
p r o c e s s e s s h o u ld c e a s e . The a c t u a l p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e t r u c e , con
c lu d e d f o r s i x m o n th s, w ere a s f o l l o w s ; - ( 1) no p e n a l p r o c e e d in g s
s h o u ld b e ta k e n a g a i n s t t h e P r o t e s t a n t s ; ( 2 ) t h e P r o t e s t a n t s s h o u ld
a d m it no new mem bers t o t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld ; ( 3 ) t h e P r o t e s t
a n t s s h o u ld w ith d ra w no re v e n u e fro m t h e c l e r g y e x c e p t f o r t h e n e c
e s s a r y s u p p o rt o f p a s t o r s , p r e a c h e r s , s c h o o ls , an d h o s p i t a l s ; ( 4 )
b e f o r e t h e c l o s e o f t h e T ru c e a n a t i o n a l a ss e m b ly s h o u ld s t r i v e t o
e f f e c t p e a c e w ith o u t t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f a p a p a l en v o y ; ( 3 ) t h e t r u c e
s h o u ld b e e x te n d e d t o f i f t e e n m o n th s i f ( a ) C h a rle s w o u ld c o n s e n t,
(b ) i f C h a rle s w ou ld e x te n d t h e P e a c e o f N urem berg t o a l l p r e s e n t
an d f u t u r e a d h e r e n ts o f t h e A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n , ( c ) i f C h a rle s w ould
f o r b i d t h e e n ro llm e n t o f new m em bers i n t h e C a th o lic L eague o f N urem -
2
b e r g . C h a r le s , h o w e v e r, r e f u s e d t o g r a n t t h e s e c o n c e s s io n s , so t h e
t r u c e re m a in e d i n f o r c e f o r o n ly s i x m o n th s.
1
W a lk e r, o p . c i t . . 196.
2
Armstrong, The Emperor. Charles 7 . I , 330.
42
I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s t r u c e , i t may b e s a i d t h a t t h e
P r o t e s t a n t s re a p e d tw o d e c id e d a d v a n ta g e s . In t h e f i r s t p la c e a l l
e s t a t e s n o t p r o t e c t e d b y t h e N urem berg t r u c e w ere t o b e s a f e g u a r d e d ;
a n d i n t h e se c o n d p l a c e , t h e p r i n c i p l e o f r e l i g i o u s s e tt le m e n t b y a
n a t i o n a l a s s e m b ly was a c c e p te d b y t h e I m p e r ia l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . On
t h e o t h e r h a n d , C h a r l e s , a l s o , made a d e c id e d g a i n . A t a v e r y
c r i t i c a l moment i n h i s c a r e e r h e w as a s s u r e d b y t h e L eague t h a t Eng
la n d , D enm ark, a n d C le v e s w ould b e e x c lu d e d fro m t h e i r ra n k s d u r in g
t h e p e r i o d o f t h e t r u c e . Had t h e s e c o u n t r i e s s u p p o r te d t h e L eague a t
t h i s t i m e , i t i s c e r t a i n l y d o u b tf u l a s t o w hat t h e outcom e w ould
h a v e b e e n .
Many p la n s w ere now a f o o t f o r a c o u n c il t h a t w ould s e t t l e t h e
r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s . At a D ie t o f t h e S c h m a lk a ld L eague i n 134-u
t h e t h e o l o g i a n s , h e a d e d b y M a r tin B u c e r, lo d g e d a memorandum on t h e
a d v i s a b i l i t y o f h o ld in g a c o u n c i l . B u cer d e c l a r e d t h a t one o f t h e
m ain o b s t a c l e s , h o w e v e r, was L u th e r ’ s o f f e n s i v e b e h a v io u r to w a rd
1
t h e S w iss t h e o l o g i a n s . A c c o r d in g ly , t h e D ie t c l o s e d , a f t e r h a v in g
a c c o m p lis h e d p r a c t i c a l l y n o th in g . "B u c e r c o n t in u e d ," s a y s G r i s a r i n
h i s m onum ental w ork on L u th e r , " t o f u r t h e r t h e id e a o f a P r o t e s t a n t
2
c o u n c i l , th o u g h so lo n g a s L u th e r l i v e d , o n ly w ith b a t e d b r e a t h . "
B ut t h e h o p e s o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t s a n d C a t h o lic s a l i k e w ere r e a l -
1
G r i s a r , o p . c i t . . 7 , Î7 6 .
2
K id d , D ocum ents I l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e C o n tin e n ta l R e fo rm a tio n . 5 0 3 .
45
iz e d i n 1541 when t h e c o u n c il f i n a l l y m et a t H atish o n * From J u n e
12— 16, 1540 , a D ie t was h e l d a t H agenhau a n d a n o th e r was h e l d a t
Worms fro m J a n u a r y 1 4 -1 8 , 1541. The b a s i s f o r t h e l a s t nam ed D ie t
was a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n . B o th D ie ts p ro v e d
a b o r t i v e , a n d a f t e r t h e s e f a i l u r e s , a d e s p e r a t e a tte m p t was made t o
e f f e c t a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n a t R a tis b o n . The E m peror th o u g h t h e saw a
w ay t o p e a c e i n r e l i a n c e upo n t h e m id d le p a r t y o f re fo rm t h a t h a d
j u s t becom e v i c t o r i o u s i n B ra n d e n b u rg , an d u^/on t h e s u p p o rt o f
P h i l i p o f H e s se , an d M a u ric e . The Pope was a l s o i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e
c o u n c i l , an d s e n t th e L e g a te , C o n t a r i n i , t o r e p r e s e n t h im .
The D ie t o p e n e d on A p r il 2 7 , an d l a s t e d t i l l May 2 2 . T h is was
t h e g r e a t e v e n t w h ich b o th p a r t i e s h a d lo n g e d an d w a ite d f o r . A
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n c o u ld b e e f f e c t e d a t l a s t i T he C a th o lic p a r t y was
r e p r e s e n t e d b y E c k , J u l i u s P f l u g , an d J o h n C ro p p e r; a n d t h e P r o t
e s t a n t p a r t y was r e p r e s e n t e d by M e la n c h th o n , B u c e r, an d P i s t o r i o u s .
A ll w ere men o f a c o n c i l i a t o r y d i s p o s i t i o n . "N ev er b e f o r e h a d t h e
p r o s p e c ts o f r e u n io n seem ed so b r i ^ t . B ut t h e y came t o n o th i n g ;
1
a g re e m e n t was r e j e c t e d . "
A s ta te m e n t o f t h e p o i n t s a t i s s u e w as draw n up f o r t h e o c c a s io n
u n d e r t h e ey e o f t h e E m p ero r, w ho, i n o r d e r t o g a in a i d a g a i n s t t h e
T u rk s , c o n c e d e d a s much a s p o s s i b l e . G re a t c o n c e s s io n s w ere o f f e r e d
fro m t h e C a th o lic s i d e . "B ut t h e P r o t e s t a n t s c o u ld n o t an d w ould n o t
1
Kidd, 0£ . c i t . . 541.
44
y i e l d , th e y s to o d a s y e t ijpon a v a n ta g e g ro im d fro m w h ic h n e i t h e r
s to rm n o r s ie g e n o r g e n tle - w ile s couj-d d is lo d g e them — ' i t re m a in e d
t o h e s e e n i f t h e t a s k c o u ld h e a c c o m p lish e d h y i n t e r n a l d is s e n s io n s
1
a n d j e a l o u s i e s . " A t t h e c l o s e o f t h e D i e t , t h e E e c e ss is s u e d on
J u l y 29 d e f e r r e d m a t t e r s t o a g e n e r a l c o u n c il w h ich s h o u ld m eet i n
th e f u t u r e . The R e c e ss h a d e t h e p r e l a t e s t o e f f e c t a C h r i s t i a n
2
re fo rm . I t c o n firm e d t h e t r e a t y o f N urem berg; th e e x c l u s i o n o f
P r o t e s t a n t s fro m t h e suprem e c o u r t was t o c e a s e , a n d a l l p e n d in g
p r o c e s s e s s h o u ld h e d is c o n t in u e d t i l l a n a t i o n a l c o u n c il s h o u ld h e
3
h e l d . A lso i t p r o v id e d " t h a t i f anyone e l s e s h o u ld w ish t o a d o p t
4
t h e i r ( th e l u t h e r a n ) r e l i g i o n , h e was n o t t o h e p r e v e n t e d ,"
L u th e r was d i s g u s t e d w ith t h e vdiole a f f a i r , h e c a l l e d i t a
p a tc h e d -u p t h i n g , an d t h e Pope o b je c te d s tr e n u o u s ly on a c c o u n t o f
t h e o m iss io n o f m e r i t , " T h is v e ry a s s e m b ly ," s a y s H e n d e rso n , " h r o u ^ t
m ore c l e a r l y th a n e v e r t o l i g h t th e fu n d a m e n ta l a n ta g o n is m o f t h e tw o
5
c r e e d s . " An I n te r im w as p ro p o s e d h y C r a n v e l la , t h e c h a n c e l l o r o f
t h e S n p ir e , t h a t was t o h e known a s t h e B a tis h o n I n t e r i m , B u t, due
t o L u th e r ’ s i n f l u e n c e , who re g a r d e d th e w hole a f f a i r a s a n i n t r i g u e
6
t o m is le a d th e P r o t e s t a n t s , t h e p r o p o s i t i o n came t o n o u g h t, A c c o rd -
1
H e n d e rso n , A S h o r t H is to r y o f C erm any. I , 37S .
2
K id d , c i t . , 551.
3
H a u s s e r, o p . c i t . . 168.
4
I b i d . 188,
3
H e n d e rso n , c i t . , 3 7 0 .
6
M e n z e l. Germany fro m t h e E a r l i e s t P e r io d . I I , 91 4 .
45
in g t o R an k e, " T h is much i s o b v io u s , t h a t a g r e a t w ish f o r r e u n io n
h a d c e r t a i n l y a r i s e n , an d t h a t many h o p e s a n d e x p e c ta t io n s w ere
1
b u i l t on i t . " A r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w ould h a v e g iv e n a n u n a c c u sto m e d
u n i t y t o a l l Germ any an d w ould h a v e g r e a t l y e x te n d e d t h e pow er o f
t h e E m p ero r. The D ie t o f R a tis b o n m ark ed t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e
c h u r c h e s . " H e r e to f o r e a l l h a d b e e n t o a l a r g e e x te n t t e n t a t i v e ,
2
h e n c e f o r t h th e y go s e p a r a t e w a y s ."
C h a rle s an d F r a n c is w ere so o n p lu n g e d i n t o a n o th e r w a r, a n d
C h a rle s was f o r c e d t o s e e k t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L ea g u e.
He won t h i s s u p p o rt b y t h e p r o s p e c t w h ich h e h e ld o u t a t t h e D ie t
o f S p ir e i n 1544 o f a g e n e r a l c o u n c i l t o b e h e l d on Cerman s o i l .
He s i l e n t l y re c o g n iz e d t h e e v a n g e l i c a l c h u rc h e s i n s u n d ry p r o v in c e s
w h ich h a d a l r e a d y re n o u n c e d t h e C hurch o f Rome, a n d g r a n te d th em
3
p e r f e c t e q u a l i t y b e f o r e t h e la w . The D ie t o f S p ir e a t vdiich
C h a rle s won t h e s u p p o rt o f t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L eague was o p en ed a n d
c lo s e d w ith t h e sm ooth w ords o f t h e E m p ero r. The d e c re e o f t h i s
D ie t WaS p u b lis h e d i n J u n e , 1544, an d p r o v i d e d : - ( 1 ) a l l p r e v io u s
c o n c e s s io n s t o th e P r o t e s t a n t p a r t y s h o u ld b e c o n firm e d ; ( 2 ) i t
e m p h a siz e d t h e d e s i r e o f t h e E m peror f o r r e f o r m ; an d ( 5 ) i t c a l l e d
u p o n e v e r y s t a t e o f t h e B n jjire t o f o r m u la te p la n s f o r im m ed iate
1
R an k e. H is to r y o f t h e P o p e s . I , 120.
2
W a lk e r, The R e fo rm a tio n . 198.
3
Zimmerman. A P o p u la r H is to r y o f G erm any. IV , 1459*
46
I .
re fo rm . B u t, ju d g in g by l a t e r e v e n t s , we may c o n c lu d e t h a t no n e o f
t h i s was s in c e r e # P r e p a r a t io n s f o r a s t r u g g l e w ere a l r e a d y made
an d h i s p u rp o s e was t o l u l l t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic p a r t y i n t o i l l u s i v e
s e c u r i t y . The g r e a t e r r o r o f t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic p a r t y was t h a t i t
p u t f a i t h i n th e a p p a r e n t s i n c e r i t y o f t h e E n p e ro r.
C h a rle s n e x t a p p o in te d t h e E l e c t o r o i‘ Saxony a s g e n e r a lis s im o
o f t h e I m p e r ia l f o r c e s , a n d d i r e c t e d him t o m arch a g a i n s t W illia m
o f C le v e s who h a d a l l i e d h im s e lf v /ith F r a n c is I . I n 1539 C u e ld e r s ,
w h ich was s i t u a t e d i n F l a n d e r s , h a d p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s o f W illia m
o f C le v e s . W illia m was an a m b itio u s r u l e r an d h a d dream ed o f
u n i t i n g w ith F r a n c is I on t h e s o u th , H enry V III on th e w e s t, th e
S c h m a lk a ld ic L eague on t h e e a s t , an d th u s s u rro u n d C h a r le s ’ t e r r i t o r y
2
i n t h e N e th e r la n d s . The le a d e r s o f th e S c h m a lk a ld ic L eague u t t e r l y
f a i l e d t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r e s e n t i n g a s t r o n g u n i f i e d
f r o n t t o t h e E m p ero r’ s i n t r i g u e s , and th e y b l i n d l y r u s h e d i n t o t h e
t r a p C h a rle s h ad s e t f o r th e m . The t e r r i t o r y o f W illia m o f C le v es
fo rm ed a c o n v e n ie n t p o l i t i c a l an d t h e o l o g i c a l l i n k t h a t w ould e s t a b
l i s h a u n io n b e tw e e n E n g la n d an d t h e League o f S c h m a lk a ld , The
E l e c t o r o f S ax o n y , m a rc h in g to D u re n , s to rm e d an d b u rn e d t h e c i t y , and
made W illia m sw e a r t o m a in ta in C a th o lic is m . C h a r le s , m e a n w h ile , É e--*
1
H a u s s e r, P e r io d o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n . 196.
2
P o l l a r d , " C o n f l i c t o f C reed s and P a r t i e s i n CermanyV" C am bridge
M odern H i s t o r y . I I , 236 .
47
î
P r i v e d h im o f Z u tp h en an d C u e ld e r s , G le v e ’ s e x p e d i tio n h arm ed t h e
L eague i n m ore ways th a n o n e , f o r i t o p en ed t h e E n p e r o r ’ s e y e s t o th e
d is u n io n an d v/ant o f p r e p a r a t i o n o f h i s e n e m ie s .
The F re n c h m onarch to o k up arm s b u t f a i l e d t o r e p u l s e C h a rle s
who p u s h e d i n t o h i s t e r r i t o r y a s f a r a s Luxem bourg, a n d f o r c e d F r a n c is
t o a c c e p t t h e P e a c e o f C re sy on S ep te m b er 14, 1544. The s i g n i f i c a n t
t h i n g a b o u t t h i s t r e a t y i s t h e j.o in t a c t i o n e n t e r e d i n t o by C h a rle s
a n d F r a n c is a g a i n s t t h e A p o s ta te s , T h is t r e a t y r e v e a l s t h e t a c t i c s
2
w h ic h C h a rle s in te n d e d t o p u rs u e a g a i n s t t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L eag u e,
C h a rle s n e x t c o n c lu d e d a f i v e y e a r s t r u c e w ith t h e T u rk s , an d
now , h a v in g b o th F r a n c is and t h e T u rk s o f f h i s h a n d s , was f r e e a t
l a s t t o d e v o te h i s e n t i r e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e League o f S c h m a lk a ld w h ich
h a d so a n n o y ed an d h a r r a s s e d him f o r f o u r t e e n y e a r s .
"The T u rk was t h e L u th e r a n s ’ l a s t s h e l t e r , when t h i s was w i t h -
3
d raw n , th e y w ould b e f a c e t o f a c e w ith t h e C a th o lic c h a m p io n ,"
C h a r le s , i n h i s C o m m en ta ries, s a y s t h a t th e e a s y v i c t o r y o v e r t h e
Duke o f C le v e s f i r s t r e v e a l e d t o him t h e w ant o f a d h e re n c e i n t h e
L u th e ra n p a r t y . A c c o r d in g ly , i n a s e c r e t c la u s e i n t h e t r e a t y o f
C re s y , C h a rle s p le d g e d F r a n c i s t o a i d him a g a i n s t h e r e s y , F r a n c is
now im p re s s e d on t h e Pope t h e n e c e s s i t y o f summoning a c o u n c il t o
1
M e n z e l. G erm any fro m t h e E a r l i e s t P e r i o d . I I , 915*
2
H a u s s e r, o p . c i t . . 196,
3
Armstrong, The Eaperor. Charles 7 . I I , 117#
48
T r e n t . Had h e d e la y e d C h a rle s w ould h a v e s u b m itte d t h e r e l i g i o u s
q u e s tio n t o a German c o u n c i l .
The P r o t e s t a n t s r e c e iv e d no i n v i c a t i o n t o a t t e n d t h e C o u n c il o f
T r e n t , so th e y m et i n a D ie t a t Worms i n 1545 i n an e f f o r t t o come
t o some d e c i s i o n c o n c e rn in g t h e i r a t te n d a n c e . C o n c e rn in g t h i s D i e t ,
Ludw ig H a u s se r s a y s , "The m e e tin g to o k p la c e w ith o u t a n y s e r io u s d e s i r e
1
t o come t o an u n d e r s ta n d i n g , a n d s e p a r a te d w ith n o is y a l t e r c a t i o n . "
The O o u » e il was h e l d a t T r e n t so t h e Pope c o u ld e x e r t a g u id in g
i n f l u e n c e . I t s jju rp o se w as t o h e a l t h e s c h ism an d a g a i n u n i t e t h e
2
German n a t i o n in m a t t e r s o f f a i t h . The P r o t e s t a n t p r in c e s s c o rn e d
t o h a v e a n y th in g t o do w ith i t , an d M e lan c h th o n w ro te a p a m p h le t d e c l a r -
3
in g t h a t t h e 0 @%ncil o f T re n t W ctS n o t a f r e e CoBBoncil. S e c r e t n e
g o t i a t i o n s w ere now c a r r i e d on B etw een P a u l I I I a n d C h a r le s . The
a t t i t u d e o f C h a rle s i s shown v e r y c l e a r l y i n a l e t t e r w h ich h e w ro te
4
t o h i s s i s t e r , M ary, on J u n e 6 , 1546.
My d e a r s i s t e r — y o u know w hat I t o i d y o u t h a t I s h o u ld
do a l l im my pow er t o e s t a b l i s h some o r d e r i n t h e a f f a i r s
o f Germany an d t o make some ad v an ce to w a rd i t s p a c i f i c a t i o n ,
a v o id in g t o t h e u tt e r m o s t th e p a th o f f o r c e . A c c o rd in g ly ,
on my jo u r n e y , I d id a l l t h a t I c o u ld to w a rd s t h i s e n d .
— E v e r s i n c e my a r r i v a l h e r e , I h a v e n e v e r c e a s e d t o m ake
a l l c o n c e iv a b le e f f o r t s t o in d u c e t h e L u th e ra n s a n d o th e r
s e c t a r i a n s t o c o n c u r i n some m ethod o f p a c i f i c a t i o n , b u t ,
do % hat r w ould a n d c o u ld , t h e r e h a v e b e e n no r e s u l t s w h a te v e r.
H a u s s e r, Ow. c i t . . 197*
2
Zimmerman, c l t . . 1461.
3
P h i l i p p s o n . Age o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n , 7 6 .
4
Armstrong, op. c l t . . I I , 126.
49
The v e r y n e x t a a y h e c o n tra c te d , a s e c r e t t r e a t y w ith t h e Pope
i n w h ic h t h e Pope p ro m ise d t o g iv e 2 0 6 ,0 0 0 s c u d i to w a rd t h e e x p e n s e s
o f a w a r; t o k eep i n t h e f i e l d f o r s i x m onths I 2 , 0000f o o t , a n d 560
h o r s e ; t o a llo w t h e E m j/eror t o a p p r o p r i a t e o n e - h a l f o f t h e S p a n is h
c h u rc h re v e n u e s f o r a y e a r , a n d t o s e l l S pstn ish p r o p e r t y t o t h e
1
e x t e n t o f 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 cro w n s. T h is s e c r e t t r e a t y h a s b e e n r e v e a l e d
b y a l e t t e r , o n ly r e c e n t l y p u b li s h e d , t h a t was w r i t t e n on D ecem ber
2 t o J u a n d e V ega, t h e p ap ax n u n c io . T h is l e t t e r c o n t a in s t h e
f i r s t d e f i n i t e p r o j e c t f o r t h e com ing w a r. C h a rle s s a i d t h a t i f h e
p o s s e s s e d a l a r g e sum o f m oney t o b e u s e d i n Germany t h a t t h e L u th e r
a n s w ould o f f e r l e s s r e s i s t a n c e b o th t o t h e T u rk is h w a r, a n a th e
c o u n c i l , a n d p e r h a p s , b e f o r e t h e l a t t e r c l o s e d , th e y w ould g iv e i n
— e i t h e r o f t h e i r own f r e e w i l l — o r o th e r w is e , "Prom t h i s l e t t e r , "
s a y s A rm stro n g , t h e h i s t o r i a n o f C h a rle s V, " th e w ar o f S c h m a lk a ld e n
2
m ay r e a l l y b e s a i d t o t a k e i t s im m e d ia te o r i g i n , "
M ean w h ile, t h e League was e v e r g ro w in g s t r o n g e r . In 1542 i t
h a d s e q u e s t r a t e d t h e t e r r i t o r y o f H enry o f B ru n sw ic k , p r a c t i c a l l y
t h e o n ly im p o rta n t p r i n c e i n Germany vho re m a in e d o u t s i d e t h e L eag u e,
H en ry p r o c u r e d money- an d tr o o p s i n o r d e r t o w in b a c k h i s p r o p e r t y ;
b u t t h e S c h m a lk a ld a l l i a n c e f le w t o arm s an d was v i c t o r i o u s o v e r
H enry a t K a lf e id e n i n t h e same y e a r . The c i t y o f H ild e sh e im th e n
1
Zimmerman, c i t . . 1461,
2
Armstrong, c i t , . I I , 117,
50
e x p e l le d t h e i r B ish o p an d em b raced L u th e ra n is m . H enry t r i e d t o
r e g a i n h i s t e r r i t o r y a se c o n d t i m e , b u t w as d e f e a te d an d ta k e n
p r i s o n e r a t N ordsheim i n 1545.
In t h e summer o f 1546 a c o n v e n tio n o f t h e L eague w as h e l d a t
F r a n k f o r t a n d i t was fo u n d t h a t i t s pow er h a d b e e n o v e r r a t e d . The
L a n d g ra v e ’ s w o rs t f e a r s w ere r e a l i z e d ; a s e a r l y a s 1539 h e h a d s a i d
t o B u cer t h a t i n t h e cam p aig n o f W u rtm b e rg a l l h a d b e e n l e d b y h im ,
b u t now s e v e r a l w a n te d to l e a d . He d e c l a r e d t h a t to o many cooks
s p o i l th e b r o t h an d t h a t a n i d o l m u st n o t b e made o f t h e L eag u e. He
s a i d t h a t m any n e g l e c t e d t h e d u ty o f c o n t r i b u t i n g , a n d t h a t when i t
came t o t h e p o i n t , s t i l l m ore w ould d raw b a c k who w ere now c o m p la in -
1
in g o f p e a c e .
At t h e l a s t m e e tin g a t S p ir e i n M arch , 1546, a t w h ich C h a rle s
and h i s m i n i s t e r s w e re p r e s e n t , a lth o u g h t h e d i s c u s s io n s w ere c a r r i e d
on w ith a n u n m is ta k a b le o b je c t i n a p e a c e a b le to n e th e y p ro d u c e d a
d i s q u i e t i n g e f f e c t upo n t h e L a n d g ra v e . C h a rle s r e f u s e d t o make a n y
c o n c e s s io n s an d t h e w o rs t f e a r s o f t h e S c h m a lk a ld L eague w ere r e a l
i z e d . War was i n e v i t a b l e !
On F e b ru a ry l 8 , 1546, L u th e r d i e d , an d w ith h i s d e a th one o b
s t a c l e t o w ar was g o n e , b e c a u s e , we m ust s u p p o se from h i s v ie w s , t h a t
h e w ould h a v e c o u n s e lle d p e a c e t o t h e l a s t .
In d i s c u s s i n g t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t s , u p o n t h e e v e o f
1
H ausser, op. c i t . . 198.
51
t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic W ar, t h e r e a r e many c o n s id e r a tio n s t o h e ta k e n i n t o
a c c o u n t. J u d g in g hy t h e i r s u p e r i o r s t r e n g t h one w ould n a t u r a l l y
c o n c lu d e t h a t th e y w ould h e a b l e t o a n n h i l a t e t h e E n p e ro r. B ut a
le a g u e can n e v e r com pare i n f i g h t i n g s t r e n g t h w ith a s i n g l e s t a t e ,
an d p a r t i c u l a r l y w hen, a s i n t h i s c a s e , i t was com posed o f m em bers o f
u n e q u a l s t r e n g t h . The m ost p o w e rfu l was t h e E l e c t o r o f S axony b u t h e
was n o t c o m p e te n t t o command. The L an d g rav e vho was l e s s j/o w e rfu l
w ou ld h a v e b e e n c o m p e te n t, b u t a L an d g ra v e m ust n o t command a n E l e c t o r .
T h e re w ere many e v e n ts i n t h e p a s t few y e a r s t h a t s e r v e d a s a s e r io u s
c h e c k t o L u th e ra n is m .
One o f t h e s e e v e n ts was t h e b igam ous m a rr ia g e o f P h i l i p o f H e sse .
P h i l i p waS d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith h i s w if e , C h r i s t i n e , an d w ish e d t o
m a rry M a r g u e r ite Von d e r S a le . H er m o th e r a g re e d t o t h e m a rr ia g e
i f P h i l i p c o u ld s e c u r e p e r m is s io n fro m L u th e r . P h i l i p d e c l a r e d t h a t
n ow here i n t h e B ib le was b ig a m y d e c l a r e d a s i n an d so in d u c e d L u th e r
a n d M e la n c h th o n t o c o n s e n t t o t h e m a r r ia g e . They r e l u c t a n t l y a g r e e d ,
b u t L u th e r c o n s e l l e d c o m p le te s i l e n c e i n t h e a f f a i r . He com pared
t h i s s e c r e t t o a s e c r e t o f t h e c o n f e s s io n a l a n d s a i d , "W hat i s t h e
t
harm o f a good plum p l i e f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u rch ?"
"The m a r r ia g e , ta k e n a l l i n a l l , w as one o f t h e m o st u n h a llo w e d
2
i n c i d e n t s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n ." The e v i l r e s u l t s
Î
Henderson, Short H istory o f Germany. I , )? 2 .
2
Ib id . . 372.
52
w ere w ide an d f a r - r e a c h i n g . C ranm er w ro te o f t h e p a i n i t c a u s e d th e
f r i e n d s o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n i n E n g la n d , F e rd in a n d d e c l a r e d t h a t h e
h a d lo n g b e e n i n c l i n e d t o e v a n g e lic a l d o c t r i n e s , b u t t h a t t h i s a f f a i r
p ro d u c e d a r e v u l s i o n o f f e e l i n g , Jo h n F r e d e r i c k , an d U lr ic h o f
W urtem berg r e f u s e d t o g r a n t P h i l i p o f H esse im m u n ity f o r t h i s c rim e , th e
l e g a l p e n a l t y o f w h ich was d e a t h . In t h e f a c e o f a l l t h i s o p p o s iti o n
t h e L an d g rav e s o u g h t p e a c e w ith t h e H ap sb u rg s an d t h e P o p e, He
e n t e r e d i n t o a b a r g a i n w ith C h a rle s on J u n e 13 , 1541, i n w h ich h e
p ro m ise d t o ab an d o n r e l a t i o n s w ith E n g la n d , F r a n c e , a n d C le v e s , and
t o e x c lu d e them fro m t h e S ch m a lk a ld L eag u e, He p ro m is e d t o s id e w ith
C h a rle s on a l l p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s , a n d t o r e c o g n iz e F e rd in a n d a s
1
C h a r le s ’ s u c c e s s o r i n t h e E m p ire, But f o r P h i l i p o f H e sse ’ s bigam y
2
C u e ld e rs m ig h t t o - d a y b e a p a r t o f Germany an d n o t o f H o lla n d ,
A ll t h i s came a t a tim e when s w i f t , u n i t e d a c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f
th e P r o t e s t a n t s was t h e i r o n ly h o p e . B ut a s i d e fro m t h i s t h e r e w as a
la c k o f u n i t y among t h e P r o t e s t a n t l e a d e r s . I f e v e r a w ar was l o s t
th ro u g h t h e b l u n d e r i n g o f l e a d e r s an d a d v i s e r s i t was t h i s o f t h e
S c h m a lk a ld ic L ea g u e, J o h n F r e d e r ic k p ro v e d a v e r y m i l l s t o n e a ro u n d
t h e n e c k o f t h e L a n d g ra v e , w h ile w h a te v e r harm was l e f t undone was
f u l l y a c h ie v e d a n d consum m ated b y a t i m i d a n d s h o r t - s i g h t e d w ar
Î
P o l l a r d , " C o n f lic t o f C reed s an d P a r t i e s i n G erm any," C am bridge
M odem H i s t o r y . I I , 241.
2
I b id .. 242.
53
c o u n c il t h a t d i r e c t e d o p e r a t io n s fro m Ulm. And t h e s o u th e r n German
c i t i e s , l o s i n g t h e i r t r a d e w ith S p a in an d P o r tu g a l w ere u n w i l l i n g
t o c o n t r i b u t e m ore f u n d s . T h e re v/ere g ra v e d i f f i c u l t i e s b e tw e e n
J o h n a n d P h i l i p , P h i l i p e x p r e s s e d h i s co n tem p t f o r t h e d u l l , b u t
h o n e s t E l e c t o r ; an d J o h n h a d g ra v e d o u b ts a b o u t P h i l i p ’ s o rth o d o x y
an d t h e m o r a l i t y o f h i s p o l i c y , f o r P h i l i p c e r t a i n l y le a n e d to w a rd
a Z w in g lia n u n io n , in d e p e n d e n t o f t h e L u th e ra n L eag u e.
The P r o t e s t a n t f o r c e s w ere a s s e m b le d in a v e r y few w e e k s. They
c o n s i s t e d o f 7 0 ,u u u f o o t s o l d i e r s , I 5 , 00u h o r s e , 120 c a n n o n ,
am m u n itio n w ag o n s, 8 ,0 0 0 b e a s t s o f b u r d e n , a n d 6 ,u ü ü p i o n e e r s .
U l r i c h o f W urtem berg commanded iu ,u v O i n f a n t r y , an d ']uO h o r s e a n d th e
I m p e r ia l c i t i e s o f s o u th e r n G erm any c o n t r o l l e d t h e pow der m i l l s an d
t h e can n o n f o u n d r i e s . T h ese c i t i e s c o n t r i b u t e d I 2 ,u u 0 m en, an d Sax
o n y a n d H esse c o n t r i b u t e d 2 1 , 0^^ m en. S ays R o b e rts o n , i n h i s mon
u m e n ta l w ork on C h a rle s V, " T h is array was one o f t h e m o st n u m e ro u s,
a n d u n d o u b te d ly t h e b e s t a p p o in te d o f an y w h ich h a d b e e n l e v i e d i n
1
E u ro p e d u r in g t h a t c e n t u r y ,"
The League s e n t a l e t t e r t o t h e E m peror r e p r e s e n t i n g i t s own
c o n d u c t a s d u t i f u l l y s u b m is s iv e ; i t s t a t e d t h a t r e l i g i o n was t h e
s o l e c a u s e o f v i o l e n c e , a n d t h a t t h e G erm anic c o n s t i t u t i o n w o u ld b e
d i s s o l v e d i f t h e E m peror p r e v a i l e d a g a i n s t i t , C h a rle s r e p l i e d t o
t h i s w ith t h e I m p e r ia l b a n d e c l a r i n g i t s m em oers a l l r e b e l s an d o u t
la w s , d e p r iv in g them o f t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s a s members o f t h e G erm anic
1
Robertson, H istory oi th e Reign o f the Emperor. Charles V, 3!^*"339*
54
b o d y , a b s o lv in g th em fro m t h e i r o a th o f a l l e g i a n c e , a n d d e c l a r i n g t h a t
t
i t Wo,s la w f u l an d m e r i t o r i o u s t o in v a d e t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s . P a u l I I I
now t o r e t h e v e i l fro m h i s s e c r e t t r e a t y w ith t h e E m p ero r, an d g r a n t
e d p l e n a r y in d u lg e n c e t o a l l who a id e d t h e C ru sad e b y p r a y e r s o r
c o n t r i b u t i ons •
The L eague now "vow ed t o d e v o te l i f e , lim b , a n d p r o p e r t y i n
2
d e fe n s e o f t h e i r fre e d o m an d e v a n g e lic a l f a i t h . " S c h a r t l i n was made
c o m m a n d e r-in -c h ie f o f a l l t h e u p p e r German f o r c e s a n d H enry o f
H eydeck, commander o f t h e W urtem berg t r o o p s . The L eague a tte m p te d
t o e n l i s t f o r e i g n a i d . I t b e g g e d t h e V e n e tia n s n o t t o g iv e t h e
E m p ero r’ s tr o o p s a p a s s a g e “ Chrough V e n e tia n t e r r i t o r y . B ut th e y
d e c l a r e d t h a t th e y c o u ld n o t o b s t r u c t h i s m arch th r o u g h a n op en co u n
t r y , o r le n d m oney t o t h e L ea g u e, f o r f e a r th e y w ould draw t h e a n g e r
3
o f t h e Pope an d C h a rle s on th e m s e lv e s . T hey a l s o r e q u e s te d t h e
S w iss t o o b s t r u c t t h e e n tr a n c e o f t h e f o r e i g n e r s i n t o Germany so t h a t
t h e i r b r e t h r e n s h o u ld n o t b e o p p re s s e d a n d e n s la v e d . B ut t h e y w ere
to o d iv i d e d i n r e g a r d t o r e l i g i o n a n d w ere to o much u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e
o f t h e Pope an d t h e E m p ero r. So th e y p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n t o m a in ta in
e x a c t n e u t r a l i t y . E n g la n d r e f u s e d t o h e l p u n l e s s H enry c o u ld be h e a d
4
o f t h e L eague a n d F ra n c e was to o e x h a u s te d fro m h e r own w a rs .
1
R o b e rts o n , o £ . c i t . .
2
Zimmerman. A P o p u la r H is to r y o f G erm any. IV , 1462.
3
R o b e rts o n , o p . c i t . . 3 3 7 .
4
I b id .. 338.
55
The E m peror c o l l e c t e d l 0 ,u u û c a v a l r y , î4 ,u u u f o o t s o l d i e r s ,
2 ,u v ù s a p p e r s , 8 ,uOû S p a n ia r d s , 10,u ü û I t a l i a n s , lî,O ù ù W a llo o n s,
T
16 ,vuO G erm ans, an d 8 u c a n n o n . He won t o h i s s i d e , i n G erm any,
M a u ric e ; t h e M arg rav e o f E u s t r i n ; Duke E r i c h o f G o ttin g e n -G o le n h u rg ;
a n d t h e M arg rav e A lb e r t o f B ra n d e n b n rg -ü lm b a c k , b y h i s p ro m is e t o
a b o l i s h t h e R e fo rm a tio n , He made t h e A rc h b ish o p o f C ologne p ro m ise
2
t o r e c a l l a l l i n s t i t u t i o n s f a v o r a b l e t o t h e R e fo rm a tio n , U nder t h e
r e s t r i c t i o n s o f t h e E l e c t i o n B o a rd , h e c o u ld n o t b r i n g t r o o p s i n t o
5
G erm any w ith o u t t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e s t a t e s . T h e re w ere tw o w ays t o
d n t e r G erm any. One e n t r a n c e W c^s from I t a l y a c r o s s t h e m o u n ta in s an d
n a rro w p a s s e s w here h e c o u ld e a s i l y ho,ve b e e n s to p p e d . A n o th e r
e n t r a n c e was a p a s s t h r o u ^ t h e N e th e rla n d s w here h e c o u ld h a v e b e e n
c h e c k e d a l s o , S c h a r t l i n s a i d , "G iv e me o n e l i t t l e tr o o p t o o c c u p y t h e
p a s s e s i n t h e L e c h th a l a n d n o t one I m p e r ia l s o l d i e r s h a l l e n t e r Germany",
B ut t h e L eague l o s t i t s g o ld e n o p p o r t u n i t y b y n o t f o llo w in g h i s a a v i c e ,
a n d so C h a rle s e n t e r e d G erm any, e n c o u n te r in g no o p p o s iti o n w h a ts o e v e r#
When C h a rle s s e c u r e d t h e a i d o f M a u ric e , a n e n t i r e l y new e le m e n t
e n t e r e d t h e a f f a i r s o f G erm any. The f a t e o f t h e German P r o t e s t a n t s
was i n a g r e a t m e a su re d e p e n d e n t on h i s c h a r a c t e r a n d p o l i c y . He h a d
m a r r ie d A g n es, t h e d a u g h te r o f t h e L a n d g ra v e , P h i l i p o f H e s s e . He h a d
g iv e n up h i s f a t h e r ’ s v e r y c o o l r e l a t i o n s w ith t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld ,
1
M errim a n , (E d. ) A n n als o f t h e B n o e ro r. C h a rle s V, t r a n s l a t e d b y
F r a n c is c o Lopez d e G om ara, tap#
2
Zimmerman, o p , c i t , . 1460.
5
S ee C h a p te r I , p a g e 6 ,
36
an d p ro c la im e d i n 1542 t h a t h e and h i s c o u n tr y w ould b e f a i t h f u l
t o t h e P r o t e s t a n t d o c t r i n e a n d w ould r e n d e r a i d i f t h e P r o t e s t a n t s
t
w ere i n d a n g e r , b u t t h a t h e w ould n o t b e lo n g t o t h e League# T h is
c a u s e d v i o l e n t d i s c o r d w ith t h e E l e c t o r , J o h n F r e d e r i c k , an d M el
a n c h th o n s a i d t h a t now w ere t h e s e e d s o f d is c o r d sown w h ich s p ra n g
2
up c a u s in g t h e g r e a t t r a g e d y . T h e re a r e , o f c o u r s e , many v a r i e d
an d d i f f e r e n t o p in io n s c o n c e rn in g t h i s tr e a c h e r o u s a t t i t u d e o f
M a u ric e , b u t , on t h e w h o le , t h e c o n se n su s o f o p in io n seem s t o
p o i n t to w a rd M a u ric e a s a n in d i v i d u a l v/tio r e g a r d e d t h e s e g r e a t
c o m p lic a tio n s a s a n e x c e l l e n t o p p o r tu n i ty o f m ak in g h i s f o r tu n e a s
a n a m b itio u s s e c u l a r p r i n c e . H is c o m m is s io n e r, C a r lo w itz , h a d a t te n d e d
t h e m e e tin g a t F r a n k f o r t an d h a d r e p o r t e d a l l t h e p r o c e e d in g s t o t h e
k in g , M a u ric e m et t h e E m peror a t E a tis b o n a n d p ro m is e d f r i e n d s h i p ,
a s s i s t a n c e , s u b m is s io n t o t h e c o u n c i l , a n d c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e
. 3
e x c h e q u e r.
The E l e c t o r , J o h n , n e g l e c te d e v e ry k in d o f d e f e n s iv e p r e p a r a t i o n .
He d id h i s b e s t t o o p p o se t h e e l e c t i o n o f S c h a r t l i n t o t h e command o f
t h e f o r c e s o f th e L ea g u e, a lth o u g h S c h a r t l i n h a d won a fam ous name f o r
h im s e lf i n t h e a r t o f w a r. The p r e p a r a t i o n s o f t h e Pope an d t h e E n p -
e r o r w ere d a i l y v i s i b l e . So t h e P r o t e s t a n t e s t a t e s m et a t a D ie t i n
R a tis b o n an d a s k e d v h a t i t was a l l a b o u t. The E m peror r e p l i e d , "To
\
H a u s s e r. P e r io d o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n . 202,
2
I b i d , . 2 u3 ,
3
I b id ,, 267.
57
p u n ish , t h e d i s o b e d i e n t ; many P r in c e s u s e r e l i g i o n o n ly a s a c lo a k f o r
t h e i r i n t r i g u e s w ith f o r e i g n e r s ; t h e y m ig h t c r e a t e a r e b e l l i o n i n t h e
1
E m p ire ." The I m p e r ia l b a n h a d b e e n p ro n o u n c e d on J u l y 2 9 , 1546. The
P r o t e s t a n t f o r c e s w ere a sse m b le d on t h e b o r d e r s o f B a v a ria a n d S w a b ia;
t h e E n p e ro r l a y a t E a tis b o n w ith 100 m en, w a it in g f o r t h e t r o o p s from
I t a l y , a n d th e N e th e r la n d s , an d t h e c o n t in g e n ts o f F e r d in a n d . E v e ry
s u c c e s s , ev en t h e e n d in g o f t h e vdiole w ar m ig h t h a v e b e e n s e c u r e d a t
one b lo w h a d S c h a r t l i n b e e n a llo w e d t o a c t . He p la n n e d t o s u r p r i s e
t h e E m peror a n d s e i z e t h e p a s s e s i n t o I t a l y ; b u t t h e E l e c t o r an d t h e
L an d g rav e o b j e c t e d , a n d fo r b a d e him t o e n t e r t h e T y r o l. They a e — •
g o t i a t e d f o r s u b s i d i e s w ith F ra n c e a n d E n g la n d a n d a c c e p te d f o r e i g n
m oney. On A ug u st 4 , th e y jo i n e d S c h a r t l i n who he&d t h e r i g h t b a n k
o f t h e R h in e , t h e l e f t b an k o f t h e D anube, a n d t h e lo v /er Lech* He
n e e d e d I n g o l s t a d t a s a s u p p o r t, b u t t h e p r i n c e s r e f u s e d t o l e t him
a d v a n c e , so th e E m peror to o k t h e c i t y . A s i n g l e d e c i s i v e v i c t o r y o v e r
2
C h a rle s m ig h t h a v e s p a re d th e c o u n try t h i r t y y e a r s o f w a r. On
Novem ber 2 2 , t h e E l e c t o r an d L an d g rav e w ith d re w t o p r o t e c t t h e i r own
d o m in io n s an d th e c i t i e s o f u p p e r Germany s u b m itte d , one a f t e r a n o t h e r .
T hey r e f u s e d t o f o llo w S c h a r t l i n ’ s a d v i c e , so h e S w itz c r# .
l a n d . A ug sb u rg was f i n e d 1 50,000 g o ld g u ld e n ; Him, 1 u u ,u u u ; Memmingen,
5 0 ,u ü ü ; E i s i i n g e n , 4 u ,u u u ; F r a n k f o r t , B u ,u u u ; an d th e o t h e r c i t i e s i n
1
Zimmerman, op. c i t . . 1462.
2
I b id .. 1464.
58
p r o p o r t i o n . The A rc h b ish o p o f C ologne w as d e p r iv e d o f h i s p r i n c e l y
d i g n i t y , t h e Duke o f W urtem berg h a d t o ran so m h i m s e l f , a n d t h e p r i n -
Î
c e s h a d t o le n d tr o o p s i n o r d e r t o p u n is h t h e le a d e r s o f t h e L eag u e.
The E l e c t o r o f S axony c o n q u e re d a l l t h e t e r r i t o r i e s o f M a u ric e
e x c e p t L e i p s ic . The H u s s ite s a l l i e d w ith h im , an d F ra n c e an d E n g la n d
o f f e r e d m oney an d m en. The E m p ero r, r e i n f o r c e d b y M a u ric e an d F e r d -
2
in a n d e n t e r e d S axony a n d p i t c h e d camp a t M u h lb e rg . On Sunday m orn
i n g , A p r il 23f t h e E l e c t o r waS i n c h u rc h when h e h e a r d o f th e a p p ro a c h
o f C h a r le s . He w a ite d t i l l t h e end o f t h e s e r v i c e s a n d th e n b u r n in g
t h e M e isse n b r id g e a d v a n c e d t o M u h lb erg w ith 4 ,u u ù i n f a n t r y , a n d 2 ,0 0 0
c a v a l r y . C h a rle s h a d 17,OuO i n f a n t r y ,a n d tU ,u u u c a v a l r y , commanded
b y F e r d in a n d , M a u ric e , an d A lb a . '’Many h i s t o r i a n s d e c l a r e t h e b a t t l e
was a m u rd e ro u s one a n d b r a v e l y fo u g h t on b o th s i d e s . T h e re was i n
f a c t no b a t t l e a t a l l . On d is c o v e r i n g t h e I m p e r ia l arm y h e a d e d b y
C h a rle s t h e P r o t e s t a n t tr o o p s w ere s e iz e d w ith p a n ic a n d b ro k e i n t o
3
f l i g h t . " The Duke o f A lb a o r d e r e d a g e n e r a l m a s s a c re an d t h e r o a d was
s tre w n w ith d e a d b o d ie s . A lb a s a i d , "Had t h e w h o le arm y fo u g h t as w e ll
4
a s t h e E l e c t o r , t h e d a y w ould h a v e e n a e d d i f f e r e n t l y . " J o h n s a i d , " I
am r i c h e r th a n my L o rd J e s u s , He h a d a t t a b l e w ith him o n ly one t r a i t o y .
1
Zimmerman, o p . c i t . . 1463»
2
A m i l l e r o f t h e n e ig h b o rh o o d , from re v e n g e b e c a u s e t h e E l e c t o r h a d
ta k e n tw o o f h i s h o r s e s , was in d u c e d by a b r i b e o f lu v crow ns an d
tw o h o r s e s t o show t h e Duke A lb a a f o r d ; a n a t h e I m p e r ia l arm y
c r o s s e d t h e E lb e u n d e r t h e s h e l t e r o f t h e m o rn in g m i s t s .
3
F a y . The T h re e G erm anys. I , 3 4 3 .
4
G if f o r d , G erm any. H er P e o p le an d T h e ir S t o r y . 243#
59
b u t I h a v e h a d m a n y ." When h e was l e d b e f o r e t h e E n p e r o r , h e s a i d ,
"M ost g r a c io u s L ord an d M a s te r b u t t h e E n p e ro r c u t him s h o r t w ith ,
"Am I now y o u r I m p e r ia l M a s te r? " J o h n h a s t i l y r e p la c e d h i s h a t , and
1
s a i d , '" I am i n y o u r p o w er, do w ith me a s y o u w i l l . " The E m peror
t h r e a t e n e d him w ith d e a th i f h e d id n o t o r d e r h i s f r i e n d s t o s u r r e n d e r ,
b u t t h e E l e c t o r p e r s i s t e n t l y r e f u s e d a n d , a c c o r d in g ly , was t r i e d an d
2
s e n te n c e d t o d e a t h . Due t o p r e s s u r e t h e E m peror was f o r c e d t o w ith
draw h i s s e n te n c e ; b u t t h e E l e c t o r a l d i g n i t y was t r a n s f e r r e d t o Duke
M a u ric e .
S o u th e rn Germany so o n c a p i t u l a t e d t o t h e E m peror a n d P h i l i p o f
3
H esse was in d u c e d b y M a u ric e t o su b m it t o t h e E n p e ro r. The E m peror
p ro m is e d t h a t h e s h o u ld n o t b e im p ris o n e d o r a s s a u l t e d i f h e a s k e d
f o r p a rd o n . P h i l i p a s k e d f o r p a r d o n , b u t W c .v S im m e d ia te ly s e iz e d an d
4
c o m p e lle d t o f o llo w th e I m p e r ia l cam p.
T h is c l o s e s t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L eague i n G erm any.
C h a rle s was now a t t h e z e n i t h o f h i s p o w er; he h a d e f f e c t e d a t r u c e
w ith t h e T u rk s ; F r a n c is I an d H enry V III w ere b o th d e a d ; h e c o n t r o l l e d
S axony a n d C ologne and h e h a d i t w ith i n h i s pow er t o e s t a b l i s h a n
1
H e n d e rs o n , A S h o rt H is to r y o f G erm any. I , 36v .
2
When Jo h n h e a r d t h e s e n te n c e , h e was p l a y i n g c h e s s w ith h i s c o u s in .
He s a i d , " I f i t i s a s e r i o u s m a t t e r , l e t them f i x a d ay t o
a r r a n g e my a f f a i r s . C o u s in , t a k e c a r e o f y o u r gam e, y o u a r e i n
c h e c k . "
3
Zimmerman. A P o p u la r H is to r y o f G erm any. IV , 1412»
4
The w e ll-k n o w n s t o r y t h a t h e was p ro m ise d h e s h o u ld n o t b e im p ris o n e d
w h ic h v/as a f te r w a r d s s a i d t o h a v e b e e n t h a t h e s h o u ld n o t b e
p e rm a n e n tly im p ris o n e d , i s n o t p r o v e n , b u t i t i s c l e a r t h a t h e
was g r o s s l y d e c e iv e d .
a b s o lu t e m o n arch y i n G erm any. The S c h m a lk a ld ic L eague was com
p l e t e l y r u p t u r e d ; i t s m em bers w ere d is a rm e d ; i t s p r i n c e s an d c i t i e s
w ere h e a v i l y p n h is h e d ; an d i t s tw o p o w e rfu l l e a d e r s w ere p r i s o n e r s .
P r o t e s t a n t i s m seem ed t o h a v e re a c h e d t h e en d o f i t s g ro w th b u t
l a t e r was w itn e s s e d t h e t u r n i n g o f th e t a b l e s an d t h e triu m p h o f th e
f a i t h .
Chapter I II
THE INFLUENCE OF THE LEAGUE OF SCHMALKALD
ON THE PROTESTANT REFOBdATION IN GERM ANY
A f t e r t h e im p riso n m e n t o f t h e E l e c t o r an d t h e s u r r e n d e r o f P h i l i p
o f H esse i t seem ed t o t h e P r o t e s t a n t p a r t y i n Germany a s th o u g h a l l
h o p e was g o n e . C h a rle s r e a l i z e d t h e im p o rta n c e o f t h i s d e f e a t a n d
was d e te rm in e d t o a s s e r t h im s e lf i n su c h a m anner t h a t t h e r e w ould
h e no m ore lo o p h o le s th r o u g h w h ich a n o th e r P r o t e s t a n t L eague c o u ld
c re e p # T h e re a r e many d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p in io n s c o n c e rn in g t h e a t t i t u d e
o f C h a rle s to w a rd t h e P r o t e s t a n t f a i t h , a s a f a i t h , a f t e r t h e d e f e a t
o f t h e L ea g u e. One v ie w i s r e p r e s e n t e d h y t h e w ords o f H agenhach
i n h i s H i s t o r y o f th e P r o t e s t a n t R e fo rm a tio n i n G erm any, i n w h ich h e
s a y s , " Im m e d ia te ly a f t e r h i s v i c t o r y , v ig o r o u s a s w ere h i s p r o c e e d
in g s a g a i n s t t h e in s u r g e n t h e a d s o f t h e L ea g u e, h e t r e a t e d t h e P r o t
e s t a n t s w ith le n i e n c y , g iV in g them l i b e r t y i n t h e m a t t e r o f D iv in e
1
W ow ship, an d t h e r e b y , e x c i t i n g t h e i r a m a z e m e n t." B u t, i n t h e l i g h t
o f C h a r l e s ’ d e s p e r a t e a tte m p ts t o c r u s h t h e h e r e t i c a l p a r t y , i t i s
h a r d t o b e l i e v e t h a t h e a llo w e d them su c h l i b e r t y .
H is r e a l a t t i t u d e i s r e v e a le d i n t h e s ta n d w h ich h e to o k a t t h e
D ie t o f A u g sb u rg on S ep te m b er i , 1547* T h is w as c a l l e d t h e "Armed
D i e t , " i n t h a t C h a rle s v/as acc o m p an ied b y lu ,u u O S p a n is h s o l d i e r s .
1
H ag en b ach , H i s t o r y o f th e R e fo rm a tio n i n G erm any, an d S w itz e r la n d
C h i e f l y , t r a n s l a t e d b y E v e lin a M oore fro m t h e 4 th r e v i s e d e d .
o f t h e G erm an, I I , 27 b .
62
The D ie t m et o s t e n s i b l y t o c o n c lu d e t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic w ar an d a r r a n g e
a r e l i g i o u s p e a c e . C h a rle s p ro p o s e d a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f J u s t i c e an d
t h e f o r m a tio n o f a v o l u n t a r y a s s o c i a t i o n , o r L e a g u e , u n i t i n g a l l t h e
German e s t a t e s , b u t l y i n g o u t s i d e t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e E m p ire . I t
was t o b e m o d eled a f t e r t h e o ld S w abian L eague an d was d e s ig n e d t o
s t r e n g t h e n t h e H ap sb u rg s a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r p r i n c e s . I t was t o em
b r a c e t h e w h o le o f Germany a n d b e d i r e c t e d b y a num ber o f p e rm a n e n t
1
o f f i c i a l s who w ere t o b e u n d e r g o v e rn m e n ta l in f lu e n c e # The c o u r ts
o f t h i s L eague w ere t o b e a r a c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e I m p e r ia l cham oer#
T h ese c o u r t s w ere t o b e g o v e rn e d b y two e x e c u tiv e b o d i e s , one f o r
t h e o r d in a r y m a in te n a n c e o f p e a c e an d j u s t i c e , a n d t h e o t h e r f o r
m i l i t a r y e m e rg e n c ie s . The L eague was t o h a v e a t i t s d i s p o s a l a n
e f f i c i e n t m i l i t a r y f o r c e i n c h a rg e o f a su p rêm e com mander a p p o in te d
2
b y t h e E m p ero r.
The German p r i n c e s an d c i t i e s o b je c te d s t r e n u o u s l y t o t h i s
p r o p o s a l. The p r i n c e s f e a r e d th e y w ould l o s e t h e i r h o ld i n G erm any;
t h e c i t i e s d re a d e d t h e e x p e n s e o f h a v in g t o k e e p i n t e r n a l an d e x t e r n a l
p e a c e i n t h e o u t l y i n g la n d s o f B urgundy a n d A u s tr ia # The c h i e f m e r it
o f t h e p la n was t h a t t h e o f f i c i a l s w ere t o b e p e rm a n e n t, d e v o tin g
t h e i r w h o le tim e t o t h e i r d u tie s # The D i e t , h o w e v e r, r e j e c t e d t h e
p la n a s u n c o n s i t u t i o n a l ; an d C h a rle s d ro p p e d t h e p r o p o s a l w ith o u t a
3
s tr u g g le #
P o l l a r d , " C o n f l i c t o f C re e d s a n d P a r t i e s i n G erm any," C am bridge
M odem H i s t o r y . I I , 263#
2
Armstrong, The,Emperor, Charles V, I I , IS9 »
3
Ibid. . 189.
65
C h a rle s d id s e c u r e , n e v e r t h e l e s s , a p erm a n en t fu n d f o r t h e
m a in te n a n c e o f p e a c e w h ic h was t o h e u s e d o n ly w ith t h e c o n s e n t o f
t h e D i e t , A lso t h e N e th e rla n d s w ere t o h e r e c o g n iz e d a s a H ap sh u rg
p r o v in c e , a n d w e re t o h e ex em p ted fro m n a t i o n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n .
The m ost im p o r ta n t a c c o m p lish m e n t o f t h e D ie t was t h e A u g sb u rg
1
I n t e r i m , p u b lis h e d b y C h a rle s on M arch 15, 1548# The I n te r i m was
draw n u p s o l e l y b y C a th o lic c o u n c i l l o r s , C h a rle s c a l l e d t o h i s a i d
t h r e e D iv in e s , n a m e ly , J u l i u s Ton P f l u g , t h e B ish o p o f B id o n a n d
2
Jo h a n n A g r ic o la , t h e c o u r t p r e a c h e r o f B ra n d e n b u rg . The d e c r e e was
in te n d e d t o k eep r e l i g i o u s p e a c e t i l l t h e m e e tin g o f a g e n e r a l c o u n c i l.
The d e c r e e ad m o n ish ed a l l h e r e t i c s i n Germany t o o b s e rv e t h e
C a th o lic v ie w a s r e g a r d s o r i g i n a l s i n , re d e m p tio n , j u s t i f i c a t i o n ,
w o rk s, r e m is s io n o f s i n s , t h e m a ss , t h e S a i n t s , t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n , th e
Communion, t h e c e re m o n ie s a n d s a c ra m e n ts o f t h e C h u rch , an d t h e a u t h o r -
3
i t y o f t h e Pope a n a h i s m i n i s t e r s . The d e c r e e c o n s i s t e d o r tw e n ty -
s i x a r t i c l e s w h ich r e t a i n e d , i n s h o r t , t h e w hole s t r u c t u r a l fo rm o f
4
C a th o lic e s ta b lis h m e n t a n d w o r s h ip . The J r'ro te s ta n x s w e re f o r c e d t o
s u r r e n d e r a l l c h u rc h e s t a t e s ; e v e r y c o n v e n t a n d f o u n d a tio n w as f o r
c i b l y r e s t o r e d t o i t s r e l i g i o u s o r d e r . A ll p r e a c h e r s vdio o p p o se d t h e
I n te r i m w ere t o b e d e p o s e d , p e r s e c u t e d , im p ris o n e d , o r o u tla w e d , an d
1
Zimmerman, o p . c i t . . i471#
2
K id d , D ocum ents I l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e C o n tin e n ta l R e fo rm a tio n . 359*
3
M e rrim a n , A n n als o f t h e E m p e ro r. C h a rle s V, 13b ,
4
Von M osheim , I n s t i t u t e s o f E c c l e s i a s t i c a l H i s t o r y . A n c ie n t and
M o d em , I I I , 63.
64
t h e E l e c t o r a l C o lle g e was f o r c e d t o p ro m ise s u p p o rt f o r P h i l i p I I
t
o f S p a in a s t h e s u c c e s s o r o f C h a r le s .
B o th t h e P r o t e s t a n t an d C a th o lic p a r t i e s w ere d i s p l e a s e d v /ith
th e I n te r i m . The P r o t e s t a n t s —b e c a u s e i t c o n firm e d t h e C a th o lic
dogmas a n d r e s t o r e d t h e a b s o lu t e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e Roman C h u rch ; an d
th e C a t h o l i c s —b e c a u s e i t a llo w e d communion i n b o th fo rm s , and
s a n c tio n e d t h e m a rr ia g e o f p r i e s t s . E ven t h e c o u n c il o f T re n t r e f u s e d
t o a d o p t i t . B u t i t was im m e d ia te ly p ro c la im e d law b y t h e E l e c t o r ,
B ish o p o f M ayence, who was th e u s e f u l t o o l o f C h a rle s V.
The I n te r i m s u c c e e d e d f o r o n ly a s h o r t tim e s in c e B rem en,
B ru n sw ic k , H am burg, M agdeburg, and ev en M a u ric e , r e s i s t e d i t s e n
f o rc e m e n t. I t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y ig n o ra n c e o f C h a r le s ,
th e g r e a t d i p l o m a t i s t . In th e w ords o f Ludw ig H a u s s e r, "Now comes
th e E m p ero r, a s t r a n g e r t o a l l t h a t was a g i t a t i n g G erm any, who h a d
n e v e r co m prehended m ore th a n th e o u tw a rd a s p e c t s o f t h e s t r u g g l e —t o
whom t h e C a th o lic f a i t h was o n ly s o m e th in g t h a t h e h a d b e e n t a u g h t ,
and t h e P r o t e s t a n t f a i t h e n t i r e l y u n i n t e l l i g i b l e — an d am alg am ated
p o r t i o n s o f b o th to fo rm a t h i r d , an d o r d a in e d ’ T h is i s now t o b e
2
y o u r c r e e d . ’ " I n s o u th e r n Germany f o u r h u n d re d f a i t h f u l p r e a c h e r s
w ere d e p o s e d , an d f o r c e d t o w ander a b o u t w ith t h e i r w iv e s a n d c h i l d r e n ,
s t a r v i n g an d s h e l t e r l e s s . Many o f th em fo u n d r e f u g e i n M agdeburg, w h ich
1
Zimmerman, c i t . . 1472.
2
H ausser. Period o f th e Reformation. 216.
65
t
so o n becam e t h e g a t h e r i n g p l a c e f o r d i s c o n t e n te d P r o t e s t a n t s .
I t p ro v e d t o b e a s t r a i t j a c k e t f o r German P r o t e s t a n t i s m ;
p e o p l e , who f o r a q u a r t e r o f a c e n tu r y h a d e n jo y e d r e l i g i o u s f r e e
dom, w ere t o b e d r iv e n b a c k u n d e r t h e c a r e o f C a th o lic b is h o p s w h ile
a l l t h e h a t e d o b s e r v a n c e s —t h e s e v e n s a c r a m e n ts , t h e d a i l y m a ss ,
t h e s t a t e d f e a s t s , t h e a d o r a t i o n o f t h e S a i n t s —w ere t o b e r e v i v e d .
The P r o t e s t a n t lo r d s s a i d , "No I n t e r i m , no e x te r im , o n ly t h e w ord
2
o f G o d ," A b r i e f c o u p l e t , c o in e d a t t h e ti m e , e x p r e s s e s t h e s e n t -
im e n t o f t h e w h o le o f t h e German p e o p l e : -
Look o u t f o r t h e I n t e r i m ,
The D e v il’ s b e h in d h im .
I t f a i l e d e v e ry w h e re e x c e p t i n t h e h e l p l e s s c i t i e s o f u p p e r
G erm any. Hans o f E u s t r i n r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t i t ; Jo a c h im o f B ra n d
e n b u rg made one o f h i s own a n d p a s s e d i t o f f a s t h e r e a l one a n d
M a u ric e o f S axony em ployed M e la n c h th o n t o draw u p a new d o c u m e n t,
known a f te r w a r d s a s t h e L e i p s ic I n t e r i m .
" I t i s p e r f e c t l y in c o m p re h e n s ib le t h a t a man o n ce so f i n e an d
so l o y a l , a n d so b r a v e , a n t h e W urtem berg t h e o l o g i a n , c o u ld w ork i n
4
t h e i n t e r e s t s o f a tim e s e r v e r l i k e M a u r ic e ." He l e f t u n to u c h e d
t h e a r t i c l e s r e g a r d i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e P o p e, e x tre m e u n c t i o n .
1
B la c k b u rn , H is to r y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u rc h . 4u7*
2
F a y , The T h re e G erm anys. 1 , 343"
P h ili p p s o n . Age o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n , 185.
4
Henderson, A Short H istory o f Germany. I , 3 S3 .
66
f e a s t s . C orpus C h r i s t ! , a n d t h e e x t e r n a l o r d in a n c e s , an d s e t up a
new p h ilo s o p h y o f " A d ia fo ris m " 4 — s t r e s s i n g th o s e t h i n g s on w h ich t h e
1
o b s e r v a n c e , o r n o n - o b s e r v a n c e , h ad no i n f l u e n c e on h o lin e s s # "The
s u b je c t i s s t i l l d e b a t e d ," s a y s G eorge W ils o n , i n h i s w ork on P h i l i p
M e la n c h th o n , " fe w , in d e e d , w i l l a c c e p t t h e a r t i c l e s t h u s r e l u c t a n t l y
a c c e p te d b y M e la n c h th o n a n d h i s c o lle a g u e a s a t o l e r a b l e e x p r e s s io n
2
o f t h e re fo rm e d f a i t h , an d many r e g a r d i t a s a d i s r e p u t a b l e s u r r e n d e r . "
M e la n c h th o n d e fe n d e d h im s e lf b y s a y in g t h a t v h e n t h e I n te r im was
d r a f t e d t h e I m p e r ia l sw ord was h a l f o u t o f t h e s c a b b a rd a g a i n s t t h e
p e o p l e , a n d t h a t h i s a c t i o n was a p l e a f o r p e a c e an d f o r th e l i v e s o f
m en. He s a i d , "T h ese t h i n g s I d id f o r t h e b e s t , I t r u s t e d th e y w ould
b e ta k e n a s th e y w ere m e a n t." He p o in t e d o u t how much i n h i s y o u th h e
h a d lo v e d th e C a th o lic c e re m o n ie s . And C h a r l e s , w r i t i n g t o M a u ric e , s a i d ,
3
"You h a v e him f a s t , s e e t h a t y o u k eep h im ." He l i v e d o n l j a y e a r o r
tw o a f t e r t h i s , d u r in g w h ich h e was d iso w n ed b y b o th r e f o r m e r s , and
4
C a t h o l i c s .
Now, we come t o t h e t u r n i n g p o in t, i n t h e h i s t o r y o f German P r o t
e s t a n t i s m . M a u ric e , t o t h e am azem ent o f a l l G erm any, d e s e r t e d t h e
I m p é r ia l c a u s e , a n d w ent o v e r t o t h e s id e o f t h e German p r i n c e s ! The
c a u s e s f o r h i s a c t i o n w ere a s f o l l o w s : — ( i ) t h e o p p r e s s io n o f t h e
1
Zimmerman. A P o p u la r H is to r y o f G erm any. I T , 1472.
2
W ils o n , P h i l i p M e la n c h th o n . 1 4 9 7 -1566 . 117,
3
H e n d e rso n , o p , c i t . « 3 6 4 .
4
W ilson, op, c i t . . 121.
e v a n g e l i c a l f a i t h b y t h e I n t e r i m ; ( 2 ) t h e tr e a c h e r o u s d e t e n t i o n o f
t h e L a n d g ra v e , P h i l i p o f H e s se , who was h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w ; ( 3 ) t h e
v i o l a t i o n b y C h a rle s o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f th e E m ^/ire; ( 4 ) t h e re w a rd s
f o r h i s S e r v ic e s , v/hich C h a rle s h a d f a i l e d t o p ay h im , an d ( 3 ) h i s
d i s l i k e o f P h i l i p I I , w ho, i f e l e c t e d t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f E m peror w ould
c a u s e G erm any t o becom e a S p a n is h p r o v in c e . In 1547 h e h a d p r e s e n t e d
t o F e r d in a n d h i s o b j e c t i o n s t o C h a r l e s ’ tr e a tm e n t o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t
p a r t y . T h is p ro v e d t o b e o f no a v a i l , so h e a p p e a le d t o t h e E m p ero r,
who r e p l i e d t h a t h e w ould h a v e th e L a n d g ra v e ’ s bod y c u t i n tw o a n d se n d
him h a l f f o r s e c u r it y # He th e n e n t e r e d i n t o a s e c r e t a l l i a n c e w ith
t h e p r i n c e s o f n o r t h e r n Germany a t D re s d e n , I n May 1551 h e s e n t a n
em b assy t o H enry I I o f F ra n c e w h ich c o n c lu d e d a t r e a t y w ith him a t
Chambord on J a n u a r y 15, Î5 5 2 , T h is t r e a t y p r o v id e d t h a t i n c o n s id
e r a t i o n o f a c o n s id e r a b le sum o f m oney g r a n te d t o M a u ric e an d h i s
p a r t y , t h e k in g s h o u ld o ccu p y a p o s i t i o n a s V ic a r o f t h e B n p ir e , He
w as t o h a v e I m p e r ia l s o v e r e ig n t y i n t h e I m p e r ia l c i t i e s w h ere German
was n o t sp o k e n —t h e c i t i e s o f C am bray, M e tz , T o u l, an d V erd u n , M a u ric e
p ro m ise d t h a t w hen a new E m peror w as e l e c t e d th e y w ould c h o o se H en ry ,
1
h i m s e l f , o r some p r i n c e a g r e e a b le t o h im . He in d u c e d H enry I I t o ta k e
t h e f i e l d i n L o r r a in e i n M arch , 1552 a s t h e " P r o t e c t o r o f t h e l i b e r t i e s
2
o f G erm any, a n d i t s c a p t iv e p r i n c e s . "
I n 155Û a t a D ie t h e l d i n A u g sb u rg t h e E m peror h a d c h a rg e d M a u ric e
Î
H a u s s e r, c i t . . 2 3 0 .
2
Kidd, _0£, c i t , . 383*
68
w ith, t h e e x e c u tio n o f t h e I n te r im i n M agdeburg, t h e P r o t e s t a n t r e f u g e .
M a u ric e , p r e te n d in g t o sefz«P M agdeburg, o f f e r e d th e m f a v o r a b le c o n d i tio n s
i f th e y w ould o p en t h e i r g a t e s an d was a b l e t o o r g a n iz e h i s a n t i -
I m p e r ia l arm y w i t h i n t h i s c i t y . On M arch 1, Î5 5 1 , M a u ric e i s s u e d a
M a n ife s to a g a i n s t t h e E m peror d e c l a r i n g t h a t t h e c o u n tr y was i n d a n g e r .
I t s t a t e d t h a t C h a rle s h a d v i o l a t e d a l l h i s o a th s a s s o v e r e ig n a n d was
d e s tr o y i n g t h e r i g h t s an d l i b e r t i e s o f G erm any b y h i s i n t r i g u e w ith*
t h e C o u n c il. The M a n ife s to a l s o c h a rg e d h im w ith c o r r u p ti o n o f th e
I m p e r ia l D i e t , c o n te m p tu o u s tr e a tm e n t o f German s u b j e c t s , a r b i t r a r y
c h an g e s i n m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t, e n d e a v o rs t o o v eraw e t h e E n p ire b y
S p a n is h s o l d i e r s , m is u s e o f t h e I m p e r ia l s i g n e t , e t c . , e t c . , an d
M a u ric e d e c l a r e d t h a t e v e ry German who c o n s e n te d t o t h i s tr e a tm e n t
\
was a t r a i t o r , a n d d e s e r v e d t o b e a s la v e o f p r i e s t s a n d S p a n is h s o l d i e r s •
I n May 1551 , Jo h n o f B ra n d e n b u rg , M a u ric e , W illia m o f H e s s e , a n d
A lb e r t o f M e c k le n b u rg , m et a t T o rg a u . T hey n e x t e n t e r e d S w a b ia; th e y
d e c l a r e d t h e I n te r i m a b o l is h e d from G erm any; th e y c a p tu r e d A u g sb u rg ,
an d d is p e r s e d t h e I m p e r ia l t r o o p s . C h a r le s , m e a n w h ile , h a d f l e d t o
In n s p ru c k . M a u ric e f o llo w e d , h o t u p o n h i s t r a i l , a n d w ould h a v e ca^j-
t u r e d him b u t f o r a m u tin y i n h i s arm y. The E n p e ro r h e a r i n g o f h i s
a p p ro a c h d i s g u i s e d h im s e lf a s a n o ld woman an d f l e d d u r in g t h e n i g h t .
M a u ric e , h e a r i n g o f h i s f l i g h t , d e c l a r e d h e iiad no " c a g e f o r so l a r g e
a b i r d . "
The s t r u g g l e b e tw e e n M a u ric e an d C h a rle s was c lo s e d b y t h e T r e a ty
1
Fay, 0 2 . c i t . . 35Î.
69
o f P a s s a u , C h a rle s was r e p r e s e n t e d h y h i s b r o t h e r , F e r d in a n d an d t h e
P r o t e s t a n t s w e re r e p r e s e n t e d b y M a u ric e , t h e Dukes o f J u l i c h , Pom er
a n i a , liV ortem berg, B a v a r ia , B ru n sw ic k , a n d c e r t a i n o f t h e C a th o lic
p r i n c e s ,
I
The t r e a t y w as s ig n e d on J u n e 6 , Î 5 5 2 , an d p r o v i d e d : - ( 1 ) t h e
d e c r e e o f S p ir e w h ich c l o th e d e a c h German s t ^ t e w ith a r i g h t t o r e g
u l a t e i t s own a f f a i r s , an d w h ich h a d b e e n c a n c e l l e d , s h o u ld b e r e s t o r e d ;
( 2 )u n iv e r s a i a m n e sty s h o u ld b e p r o c la im e d ; ( ^ ) a n u n c o n d i t i o n a l p e r
p e t u a l p e a c e s h o u ld b e d e c l a r e d b e tw e e n t h e P r o t e s t a n t s a n d C a t h o l i c s ,
w h a te v e r m ig h t b e t h e d e c i s i o n o f f u t u r e D i e t s , a n d w h e th e r t h e p a r t i e s
c o u ld come t o a n a g re e m e n t o r n o t , r e s p e c t i n g a form o f w o r s h ip ; ( 4 )
t h e r i g h t t o b e p ro m ise d t o e v a n g e l i c a l ju d g e s t o s i t i n t h e Suprem e
C o u r t; ( ^ ) t h e P r o t e s t a n t s o f t h e A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n s h o u ld b e g iv e n
c o m p le te l i b e r t y o r c o n s c ie n c e ; ( 6 ) t h e P r o t e s t a n t s s h o u ld b e g r a n te d
l e g a l e q u a l i t y w ith t h e C a t h o l i c s ; ( 7 ) t h e s e n te n c e o f o u tla w ry was
t o b e ta k e n o f f S c h a r t1 i n an d o t h e r s ; (o ) a l l e x i l e s w e re t o b e
a llo w e d t o r e t u r n ; (> ) t h e tw o c h i e f s o f t h e S c h m a ik a ld ic L eague
w ere t o b e f r e e d ,
W illia m B o b erb so n s a y s o f t h e P e a c e o f P a s s a u , " I t o v e r tu r n e d a
v a s t f a b r i c , i n d i r e c t i n g w h ic h , C h a rle s h a d em ployed so many y e a r s ,
an d h a d e x e r t e d t h e u tm o s t e f f o r t s o f h i s pow er a n d p o l i c y ; t h a t
a n n u lle d a l l h i s r e g u l a t i o n s w ith r e g a r d t o r e l i g i o n , d e f e a t e d a l l
h i s h o p e o f r e n d e r in g th e I m p e r ia l a u t h o r i t y a b s o l u t e an d h e r e d i t a r y
1
Fay, 0^ » Pit, , 3 ^6 .
70
i n h i s f a m i ly , an d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e P r o t e s t a n t c h u rc h u p o n a f ir m an d
s e c u r e b a s i s . ”
One s h o u ld g iv e îÆ aurice o f SaxOny due c r e d i t f o r h i s g r e a t accom
p lis h m e n ts r e s u l t i n g i n t h e P eace o f P a s s a u . T h eo d o re F . F ay s a y s ,
"H is m a n u s c r ip t l e t t e r s p r e s e r v e d i n t h e S p a n is h a r c h i v e s a r e t h e
m ost i n t e r e s t i n g an d f a s c i n a t i n g docum ents o f t h a t ti m e . They s t a t e
h i s m o tiv e s an d f e e l i n g s , a n d g iv e t h e r e a d e r g lim p s e s i n t o t h e
m ind o f a g i f t e d s ta te s m a n an d r e s o l u t e p a t r i o t , who tu r n e d t r a i t o r ,
2
n o t t o d e s t r o y h i s c o u n tr y , b u t t o sa v e i t fro m a g r e a t e r t r a i t o r . "
7 -
T h is e u lo g y i s c e r t a i n l y h i g h l y c o lo r e d — i t i s h a r d t o b e l i e v e t h a t
h e tu r n e d t r a i t o r m e re ly t o sa v e h i s c o u n tr y . H ow ever, we m ust
ju d g e M a u ric e n o t o n ly b y h i s t r a i t o r o u s a c t i o n s b u t a l s o b y vdiat
h e a c c o m p lis h e d . He s a v e d P r o t e s t a n t i s m f o r t h e w o rld . He was th e
m i l i t a r y l e a d e r o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n , an d h e g a v e h i s l i f e i n t h e
p e rfo rm a n c e o f h i s d u ty .
T h is t i u c e e s t a b l i s h e d P r o t e s t a n t i s m t e m p o r a r i l y i n G erm any, b u t
i t re m a in e d f o r t h e D ie t o f A u g sb u rg i n 1333 t o e s t a b l i s h i t b e f o r e
t h e w o rld i n a t r u e l e g a l l i g h t .
L a te i n t h e autum n o f 1533 t h e p e a c e w h ich h a d b e e n p ro m is e d , and
t h e p r e l i m i n a r i e s o f w h ich h a d b e e n s e t t l e d a t P a s s a u , was c o n c lu d e d
a t A u g sb u rg . I t c o n s i s t e d o f tw e n ty -tw o a r t i c l e s an d was b a s e d upon
1
R o b e rts o n , H i s t o r y o f t h e R eig n o r th e B m p ero r. C h a rle s Y, 413*
2
F a y , The T h re e G erm anys. I , 5 7 1 .
3
See A p p en d ix f o r p a r a g r a p h s 13-23 o f t h e P e a c e o f A u g sb u rg .
7!
a l l t h a t h a d b e e n c o n s id e r e d a s m e re ly te m p o ra ry c o n c e s s io n e v e r s in c e
1
1332. "A p e a c e s h a l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d a n d c o n c lu d e d ," i t was s a i d ,
"w h ich w h a ll b e p e rm a n e n t, a b s o l u t e , an d u n c o n d i t i o n a l , an d i ^ i c h s h a l l
2
l a s t f o r e v e r , "
I n a c c o rd a n c e w ith t h i s on S e p te m b e r 23 i t was o r d a in e d b y th e
d e c r e e o f t h e D ie t t h a t h i s I m p e r ia l M a je s ty , e l e c t o r s , p r i n c e s , a n d
s t a t e s s h o u ld o f f e r no v io l e n c e t o a n y s t a t e on a c c o u n t o f t h e A u g sb u rg
C o n fe s s io n , n o r i n a n y way m o le s t th em on a c c o u n t o f t h i s C o n fe s s io n .
On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e y s h o u ld b e l e f t q u i e t l y a lo n e i n p o s s e s s io n o f
t h e i r p r o p e r t y , an d r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s s h o u ld o n ly b e a d j u s t e d b y
p e a c e f u l C h r i s t i a n m e th o d s .
The g r e a t d e f e c t o f t h e r e l i g i o u s p e a c e was t h a t o n ly t h e P r in c e s
a n d E l e c t o r s c o u ld d e te rm in e t h e i r own f a i t h . A ll s u b j e c t s h a d t o
a b id e b y t h e f a i t h o f t h e p r i n c e , o r move o u t o f h i s t e r r i t o r y . T h e re
was no fre e d o m o f w o rs h ip g r a n t e d ; fre e d o m o f th o u g h t i n r e l i g i o n h a d
s t i l l t o b e fo u g h t f o r , N or was l i b e r t y o f c o n s c ie n c e , i n t h e m odern
s e n s e , g r a n t e d , o n ly l i b e r t y f o r t h e l a y r u l e r s t o c h o o se t h e i r c r e e d .
The p r i n c i p l e in v o lv e d b o th p a r t i e s i n d i f f i c u l t y . The P r o t e s t a n t
p a r t y p r o t e s t e d t h a t i t h a d no a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e P r o t e s t a n t s u b j e c t s
o f C a t h o lic e c c l e s i a s t i c a l p r i n c e s w ould n o t s u f f e r v i o l e n c e . I t
t h e r e f o r e so u g h t p r o t e c t i o n i n a c la u s e w h ic h p r o v i d e d 't h a t "' t
c i t i e s , n o b l e s , a n d d i s t r i c t s w h ich w ere s u b je c t t o e c c l e s i a s t i c s , b u t
1 '
Von M osheim , I n s t i t u t e s o f E c c l e s i a s t i c a l H i s t o r y . A n c ie h t a n d M o d em .
I l l , 6 6 1 .
2
Hausser, Period o f th e Reform ation. 237.
72
had. lo n g a d h e re d t o t h e A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n s h o u ld n o t b e C um pelled
t o re n o u n c e i t . The C a t h o lic p r i n c e s , i n t h e i r t u r n , f e l t t h a t i f
t h e B ish o p s to o k i t i n t o t h e i r h e a d s t o t u r n P r o t e s t a n t , an d t o
s e c u l a r i z e t h e i r b i s h o p r i c s , t h e r e s u l t w o u ld b e t h a t t h e c h u rc h
la n d s a n d w e a lth w o u ld r e v e r t t o t h e P r o t e s t a n t s . A c c o rd in g ly ,
F e rd in a n d p u t i n a c l a u s e r e l a t i n g t o " e c c l e s i a s t i c a l r e s e r v a t i o n "
w h ich p r o v id e d t h a t i f a n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s t a t e l e f t t h e a n c i e n t
c h u rc h i t s d i g n i t y a n d h o n o rs re m a in e d u n d im in is h e d , b u t i t was t o b e
d e p r iv e d o f i t s l i v i n g s a n a b i s h o p r i c s ; a n d a s u c c e s s o r s h o u ld b e
1
a p p o in te d so t h a t h i s t e r r i t o r y m ig h t r « n a in u n d e r t h e C h u rch . A ls o ,
a l l e s t a t e s o f t h e c h u rc h c o n f i s e a t e d p r i o r t o 1332 w ere t o re m a in
i n th e h a n d s o f t h e s p o l i a t o r s an d a l l s e iz e d s in c e t h a t d a te t o b e
2
r e s t o r e d .
By t h i s p e a c e , a l l e s t a t e s o f t h e E m p ire k e p t t h e i r p o l i t i c a l
r i g h t s a n d t h e I m p e r ia l t r i b u n a l was t o b e h a l f C a th o lic an d h a l f
P r o t e s t a n t . The o a t h , ^By Cod an d t h e S a i n t s " was c h an g e d t o
Cod an d t h e G o s p e l." B ut one o f t h e g r e a t d e f e c t s o f t h e P e a c e was
t h a t r e l i g i o u s fre e d o m was g r a n te d o n ly t o t h o s e who a c c e p te d t h e
A u g sb u rg C o n f e s s io n . T h is was d e f i n i t e l y in te n d e d t o e x c lu d e t h e
C a l v i n i s t s a n d t h e Z w in g lia n s .
The l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e P e a c e o f A u g sb u rg w ere f a r - r e a c h i n g , an d
h a d a dam pening e f f e c t on many a r d e n t P r o t e s t a n t s w hose m is f o r tu n e i t
1
Sm ith. Age of th e Reform ation. 131.
2
I b id .. 131.
73
was t o l i v e i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f a P r in c e w ith C a th o lic i n c l i n a t i o n s #
The P e a c e made no p r o v i s i o n f o r t h i s m u l t i t u d e o f b e l i e v e r s i n t h e
A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n w hose p r i n c e s re m a in e d s t e a d f a s t t o Rome— t h e i r
o n ly h o p e la y i n e m ig s a tio n fro m t h e i r homes# I t a l s o s t r u c k
th o u s a n d s o f P r o t e s t a n t s i n t h e P a l a t i n a t e an d th ro u g h o u t G erm any w ho,
b e c a u s e th e y d id n o t a c c e p t t h e A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n , w ere f o r c e d t o
T
e i t h e r a d o p t t h e C a th o lic r e l i g i o n , o r e m ig r a te t o a n o t h e r t e r r i t o r y #
A n o th e r w eak n ess w a s, t h a t i n f r e e I m p e r ia l c i t i e s , r e l i g i o u s
a f f a i r s w ere f o r c e d t o re m a in i n a c o n d i t i o n o f s t a t u s q u o , a n d n e i t h e r
2
p a r t y was t o a tte m p t t o d r i v e o u t t h e o t h e r . " I t h e lp e d t o s e c t -
a r i a n i z e E u ro p e a n P r o t e s t a n t i s m , " s a y s W. M. B la c k b u rn i n h i s H is to r y
o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u rc h , "im m ense e v i l s grev/ o u t o f i t . Y et i t
m arks t h e c l o s e o f a n e p o c h fro m th e r i s e t o t h e e s ta b l is h m e n t o f t h e
3
R e fo rm a tio n i n G erm any." I n s t e a d o f t h e f a i t h b e in g d e te rm in e d b y
t h e C h u rch a s i t h a d b e e n p r e v i o u s l y i t was n o t d e te rm in e d b y
t e r r i t o r i a l p r i n c e s . The p e r s e c u t i o n h a d ch a n g e d from c l e r i c a l t o
la y , " I n s t e a d o f t h e re m o te p r o s p e c t s o f b e in g b u r n t , ” s a y s A. F .
« 4
P o l l a r d , " t h e r e w ere th e m ore im m e d ia te p r o s p e c ts o f b e in g b a n i s h e d ."
The u n i t y o f t h e m e d ie v a l c h u rc h was b ro k e n f o r e v e r an d c e r t a i n
d i v i s i o n s w ere b eg u n i n Germany w h ic h g rew d e e p e r a n d d e e p e r u n t i l
1
L in d s a y , H is to r y o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n . I I , 4 .
2
H e n d e rso n , A S h o rt H i s t o r y o f G erm any. I , 5 9 3 .
3
B la c k b u rn , H is to r y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u rc h . 4u8.
4
P o l l a r d , " C o n f lic t o f C reed s an d P a r t i e s i n G erm any," C am bridge
M odern H i s t o r y , I I , 27 8 .
74
î
t h e o u tb r e a k o f t h e T h i r t y Y e a rs W ar. " I t w as a m ere p o l i t i c a l a g r e e s
m e n t,” * s a y s W o lfg an g M e n z e l, t h e g r e a t Berm an h i s t o r i a n , " p r o v i s i o n a l l y
e n t e r e d i n t o b y t h e p r i n c e s f o r t h e b e n e f i t , n o t o f r e l i g i o n , b u t o f
th e m s e lv e s ,— P o p u la r o p in io n was dumb— k n i g h t s , b u r g e s s e s , a n d p e a s a n t s ,
2
b e n d in g i n lo w ly s u b m is s io n t o th e m a n d a te s o f t h e i r s o v e r e i g n s ."
As a n e x a m p le , i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f P f a l z , d u r in g a b r i e f p e r i o d o f a
few y e a r s , t h e r e l i g i o n w as c a p r i c i o u s l y ch an g e d f o u r ti m e s . Out o f
a p o p u la tio n o f tw e n ty m i l l i o n i n th e B n p ir e , tw e n ty th o u s a n d o n ly
e n jo y e d t h e p r i v i l e g e o f c h o o s in g t h e i r own r e l i g i o n a r a t i o o f
5
one o u t o f e v e r y th o u s a n d .
The P e a c e o f A u g sb u rg m e re ly p o s tp o n e d c i v i l w a r. "E u ro p e h a d
l a i n so lo n g u n d e r t h e d o m in a tio n o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
c i v i l i z a t i o n , " s a y s P r e s e r v e d S m ith , ’^ h a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o r c o m p le te
4
t o l e r a t i o n h a r d l y o c c u r r e d t o a n y b u t a few e c c e n t r i c s . " P a u l IV
was b e s id e h im s e lf v d th r a g e when h e h e a r d d o f t h e P e a c e t h a t h a d
b e e n c o n c lu d e d . He d e c l a r e d , " S a ta n d iv i d e s t h e E m p ire o f Germany
3
e q u a l l y w ith C h r i s t . " E ven t h e L u th e ra n s w ere d i s a p p o i n t e d . The
s p i r i t o f c o n tr o v e r s y f i l l e d t h e a i r . "On t h e one s i d e , ” s a y s Jam es
R ic h a r d , i n h i s w ork on P h i l i p M e la n c h th o n , "was t h e M e la n c h th o n ia n
1
H o l l i n g s , E u ro p e i n R e n a is s a n c e an d R e fo rm a tio n 1 4 5 3 -1 6 6 0 . 6 th e d . ,
IV , 133.
2
M e n z e l. Germany fro m t h e E a r l i e s t P e r i o d . I I , 9 2 3 .
3
I b i d . . 9 2 4 .
4
S m ith , o ^ . c i t . , 131.
3
Dryer. H istory o f th e C h ristian Church. I l l , 197.
73
s c h o o l r e p r e s e n t e d b y W itte n b e r g an d L e i p s ig , vdiich s o u g h t t o a p p ly
t h e d o c t r i n e s a n d p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e Reforment io n i n a n i r e n i c a l an d
c o n c i l i a t o r y m a n n e r; on t h e o th e r s i d e w e re t h e W e im a ria n s, #10
s o u g h t t o m ake t h e g u l f b e tw e e n th e m s e lv e s a n d t h e i r r e l i g i o u s oppon—
, \
e n t s b o th C a th o lic an d re fo rm e d , a s w id e a s p o s s i b l e . "
The p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e D ie t w ere d e f e c t i v e i n t h a t t h e te rm s o f
p e a c e h a d no e l a s t i c i t y . They p r o v id e d f o r no p r o g r e s s , b u t r e q u i r e d
t h e tw o p a r t i e s t o re m a in j u s t w h ere t h e y w ere p la c e d . "T hey w ere a n
a tte m p t t o c r y s t a l l i z e t h e R e fo rm a tio n , an d t h i s c o u ld n o t b e done
2
w ith o u t v i o l e n c e t o t h e c o n s i t u t i o n o f t h e human m in d .” I t seem s
aS th o u g h t h e l o g i c a l c o u rs e o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n i n Germ any w ould h a v e
b e e n a p e r s i s t e n t d e n i a l t o y i e l d t o co m p ro m ise, an d t h e e v e n tu a l
r e s u l t s h o u ld h a v e b e e n i n d i v i d u a l r e l i g i o u s fre e d o m . B ut t h e t r e a t y
was m a in ly due t o t h e l a r g e a n d im p o rta n t m id d le p a r t y , vdiich was
com posed o f b o th C a th o lic a n d P r o t e s t a n t e s t a t e s , w ith E l e c t o r a l Sax
ony fo rm in g t h e b a c k b o n e . I n p o l i t i c a l m a t t e r s t h e r e w as no r e s t r a i n t
l a i d on t h e l i b e r t y o f c o n c lu d in g f o r e i g n a l l i a n c e s — " th u s i n m a t t e r s
p o l i t i c a l , a s w e ll a s r e l i g i o u s , t h e A u g sb u rg s e tt le m e n t l e f t t h e
3
d o o r o p en th r o u g h v ^ ic h t h e s p i r i t o f c o n f l i c t m ust e n t e r . " The D ie t
re m o d e lle d t h e c h i e f j u d i c i a l t r i b u n a l so t h a t t h e L u th e ra n s w ou ld b e
r e p r e s e n t e d e q u a l l y w ith t h e C a t h o l i c s , a lth o u g h t h e p r e s i d i n g ju d g e
1
R ic h a r d , P h i l i p M e la n c h th o n , t h e P r o t e s t a n t P r e c e p to r o f G erm any.
1 4 9 7 -1 3 6 0 . 3 6 2 .
2
G in d e le y , The H is to r y o f t h e T h i r t y Y ears W ar. I , 14.
3
W ard, "The E m p ire u n d e r F e rd in a n d I an d M a x im ilia n I I , ” C am bridge
M odem H i s t o r y . I l l , 144 4 .
76
î
c o n tin u e d t o b e a C a th o lic *
I t i s r e a s o n a b le t o s u p p o se t h a t b o th p a r t i e s h o p ed f o r g r e a t e r
tr iu m p h s . C e r t a i n l y , t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e P eace w ould n o t h a v e b e e n
a c c e d e d t o b y t h e C a t h o l i c s , b u t f o r t h e i r a p p r e h e n s io n t h a t a f r e s h
r e s o r t t o arm s w ould r e s u l t t o t h e i r d is a d v a n ta g e . And t h e P r o t e s t a n t
e s t a t e s f o r t h e i r p a r t c h e r i s h e d c o n c e p tio n s o f t h e i r t e r r i t o r i a l
a u t h o r i t y \d iic h , s h o u ld t h e i r pow er c o n tin u e t o g ro w , m ig h t le a d t o a
2
c o m p le te e x c lu s io n o f C a th o lic is m fro m t h e i r do m in io n s*
I n a b r i e f summary one may s a y t h a t t h e r e w ere a t l e a s t s i x g r e a t
d e f e c t s i n t h i s P e a c e o f A u g sb u rg ; ( l ) t h e fre e d o m o f r e l i g i o n was n o t
e x te n d e d t o a l l s u b j e c t s o f t h e S n p i r e ; ( 2 ) th e m a in p r i n c i p l e was
h e d g e d a ro u n d b y to o many r e s t r i c t i o n s ; (3 ) t h e C a l v i n i s t s a n d Zw ing
l i a n s w ere e x c lu d e d fro m r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n ; ( 4 ) i n I m p e r ia l tow ns
w here b o th r e l i g i o n s e x i s t e d e a c h p a r t y was t o r e t a i n p o s s e s s io n o f
i t s p r o p e r t y a n d r i g h t s i n p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s r e l a t i v e n u m b e rs; ( 3 )
t h e r e w as no d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e r e l i g i o u s C o n fe s s io n o f A u g sb u rg ,
a s i t w as o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e iv e d , a n d th e v a r i a t i o n s t h a t w ere l a t e r
in tr o d u c e d i n t o i t ; ( 6 ) t h e E c c l e s i a s t i c a l R e s e rv a tio n *
On t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e r e w e re many g r e a t b e n e f i t s a c c r u in g from
t h e P e a c e o f A ugsburg* I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , th o u g h t h e c h o ic e o f r e l
i g i o n waS l i m i t e d t o tw o a l t e r n a t i v e s i t was m ore th a n h a d e v e r b e e n
1
W ard, o p * c i t * , 140*
2
T h e re w ere m ore t h a n s i x t y su c h tow ns in Germ any—t h e b u lk o f w hich
l a y i n t h e s o u th e r n p a r t . T h is d e c i s i o n re m a in e d a p e r e n n i a l
s o u r c e o f d i s c o r d .
77
a llo w e d b e f d r e . A n o n - c o n f o r m is t, m o re o v e r, w ould n o t h a v e t o go f a r
b e f o r e f i n d i n g a German com m unity h o ld i n g e i t h e r t h e C a th o lic o r
L u th e ra n o p in io n s w h ich h e p r e f e r r e d . The P e a c e a t l e a s t k e p t t h e
tw o camps from w ar f o r m ore th a n t h i r t y y e a r s , p r e s e r v i n g p e a c e am id
a l l t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e J e s u i t s an d t h e P o p e s , a lth o u g h t h e s t r a i n w as
a t tim e s v e r y s e v e r e . I t in c r e a s e d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e t e r r i t o r i a l
s t a t e s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e I m p e r ia l g o v e rn m e n t. A sid e fro m t h e s e
b e n e f i t s t h e P e a c e o f A u g sb u rg " c o n c e d e d t h e l e g a l r i g h t o f t h e tw o
c h u rc h e s t o r e s t d id e b y s i d e , and t h u s b ro k e th r o u g h t h e m e d ie v a l
1
c h u rc h s y s te m ." I t d i r e c t l y p ro d u c e d t h e f i r s t c h u rc h in d e p e n d e n t
o f Rome; a n d t h u s p r e p a r e d t h e way f o r o t h e r r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n itie s.
The t r u e v a lu e o f t h e P e a c e o f A u g sb u rg i s v e r y w e ll e x p r e s s e d
2
b y t h e w ords o f t h e R ev ere n d B. J . K id d ,
By i t L u th e ra n is m g a in e d l e g a l r e c o g n i t i o n . T ru e , i t was a
m aim ed v i c t o r y f o r t e r r i t o r i a l i s m , n o t f o r t o l e r a t i o n - -------
o n ly a la y p r in c e o f t h e E m p ire a c q u i r e d th e r i g h t t o w o rsh ip
a c c o r d in g t o th e C o n fe s s io n o f A u g sb u rg -—y e t e v e n t h i s
l i m i t e d v i c t o r y was a s te p g a i n e d : - t h e f i r s t s t e p on t h e
r o a d t o r e l i g i o u s l i b e r t y .
I n c o n c lu d in g t h e s tu d y o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e L eague o f
S c h m a lk a ld on t h e P r o t e s t a n t R e f o m a tio n i n G erm any, i t w i l l b e necj->
e s s a r y t o r e c a p i t u l a t e .
Had i t n o t b e e n f o r t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld , vdiat w ould h a v e
b e e n t h e r e s u l t o f t h e s t r u g g l e b e tw e e n t h e C a th o lic s a n d P r o t e s t a n t s
1
H a u s s e r, P e r io d o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n . 2 3 8 .
2
Kidd, Documents I llu s t r a t iv e o f th e C ontinental Reformation. 363*
i n G erm any? T h is i s a n i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n , an d one w h ic h , i n t h e
v e r y n a t u r e o f t h i n g s , c a n n e v e r h e a n sw e re d a c c u r a t e l y . C e r t a i n l y ,
t h e League o f S c h m a lk a ld becam e t h e cham pion o f r e l i g i o u s fre e d o m
a g a i n s t t h e ty r a n n y o f t h e Roman C a th o lic C h u rch . Due t o t h e in f l u e n c e
o f t h i s L ea g u e, U l r i c h o f W u rte iA # r^ was r e s t o r e d t o h i s t e r r i t o r y ,
an d h i s t e r r i t o r y was r e s t o r e d t o P r o t e s t a n t i s m b y t h e P e a c e o f E ad a n ,
J u n e 2 9 , 1334. A ls o many g r e a t e s t a t e s i n Germ any w ere won o v e r t o
t h e s i d e o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m due t o t h e e f f o r t s o f t h i s L ea g u e. The
m o st im p o r ta n t o f t h e e s t a t e s an d c i t i e s r e c o v e r e d f o r t h e f a i t h w ere
N a s s a u , H a n o v e r, F r a n k f o r t , A u g sb u rg , P o m e ra n ia , A l b e r t i n e an d E r n e s t
in e S ax o n y , M e c k le n b u rg -^ c h w e rin , B ru n s w ic h -C a le n b u rg , N urem berg,
S t r a s s b u r g , T h u r i n g ia , 't h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e G u e lp h s , M agdeburg, H a l-
b e r s t a d t , N aum burg, H ild e s h e im , E a s t F r i e s e l a n d , t h e H anse to w n s ,
H o l s t e i n , S ch le w w ig , S i l e s i a , an d P r u s s i a . M ost o f t h i s t e r r i t o r y i s
to - d a y s t r o n g l y P r o t e s t a n t .
The L eague a l s o p ro v e d t o b e t h e r a l l y i n g p o i n t f o r a l l d is c o n
t e n t e d P r o t e s t a n t s a n d C a th o lic s a g a i n s t t h e E m p ero r, C h a rle s V. 7
C e r t a in i t i s t h a t no o t h e r f o r c e t h e n e x i s t e n t i n Germany c o u ld h a v e
e v e r d e f e a te d C h a r le s .
Due t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h i s L eague t h e S c h m a lk a ld A r t i c l e s w ere
draw n u p , w h ich fo rm t o - d a y one o f t h e d o c t r i n a l sym bols o f t h e L u th
e r a n C h u rch . A ls o , t h e L eague h e lp e d t o d i s s o l v e t h e b i t t e r n e s s be-*-
tw e e n t h e German a n d S w iss r e l i g i o n i s t s . At t h e C o n c o rd a t o f W itte n
b e r g i n 1334 , t h i s m om entous d e c i s i o n was re a c h e d w h ic h h a s s in c e t h a t
tim e p ro v e d t o b e a p o i n t o f c o n ta c t b e tw e e n t h e L u th e ra n s an d t h e S w is s.
79
A ls o , i t i s d o u b tf u l i f C h a rle s iv e r - c d U ld h&y# d e f e a t e d t h e
T u rk s so c o n c l u s i v e ly a s h e d id h a d i t n o t b e e n f o r t h e a i d o f t h e
L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld a f t e r t h e P e a c e o f N urem berg i n t3>2# T h u s,
t h e L eague b e n e f i t e d n o t o n ly P r o t e s t a n t i s m , b u t a l l C h r i s t i a n i t y .
L a s t l y , t h e P e a c e o f A u g sb u rg c o u ld n e v e r h a v e b e e n consum m ated
e x c e p t f o r t h e u n w e a ry in g e f f o r t s o f t h e S c h m a ik a ld ic League an d i t s
i n s i s t e n c e on t h e r i g h t o f r e l i g i o u s fre e d o m w hich b e lo n g s t o e v e r y
C h r i s t i a n man a n d woman. T h en , t o o , t h e w ork o f t h e L eague d i r e c t l y
c a u s e d t h e a b d i c a t i o n o f C h a rle s V. He was w orn o u t fro m t h e lo n g
an d u n s u c c e s s f u l s t r u g g l e v h ic h h e h a d w aged a g a i n s t h e r e s y , a n d s o ,
i n 1536 a b d i c a te d th e crow n o f t h e E m p ire t o h i s b r o t h e r F e r d in a n d .
C h a rle s d ie d tw o ye& rs l a t e r i n a m o n a s te ry , h a v in g e x p r e s s e d t h e
w is h j u s t b e f o r e h i s dearth t h a t h e h a d b u rn e d L u th e r a t Worms. H is
a t t i t u d e i s w e ll e x p r e s s e d i n a p a r a g r a p h q u o te d fro m h i s s p e e c h
1
o f a b d i c a t i o n : -
The l a s t tim e t h a t I w ent t o G erm any, I h a d d e te rm in e d t o
do w hat y o u s e e me do t o - d a y , b u t I c o u ld n o t b r i n g m y s e lf
t o do i t vdien I saw t h e w re tc h e d c o n d i t i o n o f t h a t C h r i s t
i a n s t a t e — — I r i s k e d my s t r e n g t h , my g o o d s , my r e p o s e , a n d
my l i f e f o r t h e s a f e t y o f C h r i s t i a n i t y an d t h e d e f e n s e o f
my s u b j e c t s . B ut t h e k in g 01 F r a n c e , a n d c e r t a i n G erm ans,
f a i l i n g t o p r e s e r v e t h e p e a c e and a m ity th e y h a d sw o rn ,
m a rc h e d a g a i n s t me an d w ere u p o n t h e p o in t o f s e i z i n g my
p e r s o n . — I h a v e c a r r i e d o u t w h at God p e r m i t t e d , s in c e
t h e outcom e o f o u r e f f o r t s d ep en d s u p o n th e w i l l o f G o d .—
I am d e te rm in e d t h e n t o r e t i r e t o S p a in , t o y i e l d t o ray
b r o t h e r , t h e k in g o f t h e Homans, t h e E m p ire , a n d t o my
s o d , P h i l i p , t h e p o s s e s s io n o f a l l my s t a t e s ,
T hus we s e e how t h e League o f S c h m a lk a ld s e c u r e d t h e a b d i c a t i o n
1
P e n n s y lv a n ia U n i v e r s i t y , T r a n s l a t i o n s a n d R e p r in ts fro m O r i g i n a l
S o u rc e s o f E u ro p e a n H i s t o r y . I I , 3 - 4 .
60
fro m pow er o f t h e g r e a t e s t f o e o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t R e fo rm a tio n . S in c e
F e rd in a n d w as to o b u s y w ith t h e T u rk s t o b e i n t e r e s t e d i n G erm any,
a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r , M a x im ilia n I I was f a v o r a b l y i n c l i n e d t o P r o t
e s t a n t i s m , we may f a i r l y c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld sa v e d
Germany fro m th e d e s t r u c t i v e p la n s o f t h e Pope an d t h e E m p ero r, a n d
p r e p a r e d t h e way f o r a new a n d g r e a t e r g ro w th o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t f a i t h ,
81
Chapter III
THE INFLUENCE OF THE LEAGUE OF SCHMALKALD ON
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION IN LANDS OUTSIDE OF GERMANY
The L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld e x e r t e d a p o w e rfu l i n f l u e n c e , n o t o n ly
i n G erm any, h u t i n m any f o r e i g n la n d s a s w e l l . I t was re c k o n e d a s one
o f t h e g r e a t e s t a n ti- H a p s h u r g pow ers i n e x i s t e n c e a t t h a t t i m e . I t s
a g e n ts so u g h t a l l i a n c e w ith f o r e i g n p o w ers a l l o v e r E u ro p e . I t b e g a n
t o r e g a r d i t s e l f a s a L ea g u e, n o t o n ly f o r s e l f - d e f e n s e w i t h i n t h e
B a p i r e , b u t f o r t h e f u r t h e r a n c e o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t c a u s e a l l o v e r E u ro p e .
Nor w ere i t s aim s e x c l u s i v e l y r e l i g i o u s — th e o lo g y becam e i n e x t r i c a b l y
m ix ed w ith p o l i t i c s .
T h e re w ere m any s e r i o u s a tte m p ts a t a n a l l i a n c e w ith H enry V III
o f E n g la n d . The n e g o t i a t i o n s b e tw e e n H en ry an d t h e L eague o f S chm al
k a l d o c c u r r e d d u r in g t h e p e r i o d Ï3 3 3 -T 3 4 -. At t h i s tim e t h e r e was a
g r e a t «xdVc^nce i n E n g la n d to w a rd th e R e fo rm a tio n th&kt was a i d e d t o a
c e r t a i n e x t e n t b y t h e p r o j e c t e d p o l i t i c a l an d r e l i g i o u s t r e a t y w ith
1
t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld . "From t h e E n g lis h k i n g ’ s i n s t r u c t i o n s t o
h i s en v o y s i t w o u ld a p p e a r t h a t h i s c h i e f d e s i r e was t o com m it t h e
2
German d iv i n e s t o a n ap i^ ro v a l o f t h e d i v o r c e ." I n t h e summer o f
1333 H e n ry , m e d i t a t i n g a L eague w ith t h e L u th e ra n p r i n c e s , s e n t h i s
en v o y , S te p h e n V aughn, t o so u n d o u t t h e i n c l i n a t i o n s o f t h e German
1
Lindsay. H istory o f th e Reform ation. I I , 340,
2
Ib id . . 340.
02
P r o t e s t a n t s . B ut t h e en v o y was so i l l - r e c e i v e d b y t h e E l e c t o r o f
S axony t h a t t h e p la n s w en t no f u r t h e r f o r t h e tim e b e i n g .
H en ry s t i l l p e r s i s t e d i n h i s p la n s t o s e c u r e t h e a p p r o v a l o f t h e
L u th e ra n s f o r h i s d iv o r c e fro m C a th e r in e o f A rag o n . Many e m b a ss ie s
w ere s e n t t o W itte n b e r g ; lo n g d i s c u s s i o n s w ere h e l d an d t h e r e s u l t s
r e p o r t e d b a c k t o H en ry V I I I . L u th e r , i n a l e t t e r d a t e d S ep te m b er 12,
133 3 , s a i d , " C o n c e rn in g t h e k i n g ’ s m a r r ia g e , i t i s a g r e e d t h a t t h e
o t h e r a m b a ssa d o r s h a l l t r e a t w ith uS — 1 am c u r io u s t o l e a m why th e y
2
w ant t o b e so w e ll s a t i s f i e d on t h i s p o i n t . ” The German p r i n c e s w ere
m ore f a v o r a b l y d is p o s e d t o t h e d iv o r c e th a n w as L u th e r . They
b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e la w a g a i n s t m a rry in g a b r o t h e r ’ s w if e o u g h t t o
b e k e p t- a n d t h a t a d i s p e n s a t i o n s h o u ld b e g r a n te d t o H enry V III i n
3
o r d e r t o a b s o lv e him fro m t h e v i o l a t i o n o f t h i s la w .
A d e p u ty o f E n g lis h th e o lo g ia n s com posed o f F o x e , t h e B ish o p
e l e c t o f H e r e f o r d ; H e a th , t h e A rc h b ish o p o f C a n te r b u r y ; an d D r. B a rn e s ,
a n E n g lis h D iv in e , m et w ith t h e L eague o f S chm aikaxd i n Germany an d
a tte m p te d t o r e a c h a r e l i g i o u s s e tt le m e n t i n o r d e r t h a t a p o l i t i c a l
a l l i a n c e m ig h t l a t e r f o ll o w . ”So f a r t h e k in g h a s becom e L u th e r a n ,”
s a y s Thomas L in d s a y , " t h a t b e c a u s e t h e Pope h a d r e f u s e d t o s a n c ti o n h is
d i v o r c e , h e h a s o r d e r e d , on p e n a l t y o f d e a t h , t h a t e v e ry o n e s h a l l b e l i e v e
1
D ix o n , H i s t o r y o f t h e C h u rch o f E n g la n d . I , 1?6.
2
S m ith , L if e an d L e t t e r s o f M a r tin L u th e r . 197.
3
Burnet, H istory o f th e Reformation o f th e Church o f England. I l l , 169.
85
an d p r e a c h t h a t n o t t h e P o p e , h u t h i m s e l f , i s th e h e a d o f t h e u n i v e r s a l
c h u r c h , a l l o t h e r p a p i s t r y , m o n a s t e r ie s , m a s s , in d u lg e n c e s , a n d i n t e r -
1
c e s s io n s f o r t h e d e a d , a r e p e r t i n a c i o u s l y a d h e re d t o . ”
M e la n c h th o n h a d c a r e f u l l y g o n e o v e r t h e C o n fe s s io n o f A u g sb u rg , a n d
h e an d .L u th e r p ro d u c e d a s e r i e s o f A r t i c l e s w h ich t h e W itte n b e r g t h e
o lo g ia n s f e l t t h a t th e y c o u ld c o n c e d e . The L u th e ra n an d E n g lis h
e m b a ss ie s b o th a g r e e d t h a t t h e p rim a c y o f t h e Pope s h o u ld b e d iso w n ed
an d t h a t th e y s h o u ld n o t b e bound b y t h e d e c r e e s o f an y c o u n c il c a l l e d
b y t h e E m p ero r o r P o p e. The k i n g ’ s a m b a ssa d o rs s e n t t o H enry a n
a u t h e n t i c co p y o f t h e docum ent p r e p a r e d b y t h e L u th e r a n s . The p r i n c e s
2
dem anded t h a t ;
The k in g w ould s e t f o r t h t h e t r u e d o c t f i n e o f C h r is t
a c c o r d in g t o t h e A u g sb u rg C o n f e s s io n , a n d t h a t h e w o u ld
d e fe n d t h a t d o c t r i n e a t t h e n e x t g e n e r a l c o u n c i l t h a t
t h e k in g w i l l a s s o c i a t e h im s e lf w ith t h e L eag u e, a n d
a c c e p t t h e name o f D e fe n d e r o r P r o t e c t o r o f i t — - t h a t t h e
k in g s h a l l la y down ivO ,O uu c ro w n s, w h ich i t s h a l l b e
la w f u l f o r t h e C o n fe d e ra te s t o make u s e o f .
When G a r d in e r r e a d t h i s h e s a i d , "You a r e a s k e d t o make a c o n t r a c t
b u t t h e r e i s no e q u a l i t y . On t h e one h a n d t h e r e i s t h e k in g o f E n g la n d ,
who i s t h e h e a d o f h i s own c h u rc h . On t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e r e a r e n o n e b u t
D ukes an d o t h e r s u b o r d in a te p e r s o n a g e s , t h e h e a d o f w hose c h u rc h i s
3
t h e E m p e ro r.”
The k in g s e n t tw o a n s w e rs t o t h e s e dem ands. I n h i s f i r s t a n sw e r
h e s t a t e d t h a t h e w ish e d a c o u n c i l vd.th t h e le a r n e d men o f Germany i n
t
L in d s a y , o p . c i t . , I I , 3 4 1 .
2
B u r n e t, o p . c i t . . I l l , 17 1 -1 7 2 .
3
Dixon, op. c i t .. I, 310.
84
o r d e r t h a t t h e y m ig h t h a v e a p e r f e c t u n io n i n f a i t h . He s a i d t h a t h e
d id n o t t h i n k i t f i t t o a c c e p t t h e t i t l e o f f e r e d him u n t i l t h e a r t i c l e s
o f D o c tr in e w ere a g r e e d u p o n . He a g re e d t h a t h e w o u ld s u f f e r n o n e o f
h i s s u b j e c t s t o s e t u p o n th em i n w ar an d t h a t i n t h e f u t u r e h e was
Î
w i l l i n g t o c o n t r i b u t e 1uü,uüO cro v m s.
H is se c o n d a n s w e r, s e n t a f t e r t h e d e a th o f Queen M ary, s t a t e d
2
t h a t h e w as.
D e te rm in e d t o c o n tin u e w ith a p o l i c y o f lo v e w ith them
on a l l o c c a s io n s ^ — t h a t i t was n o t f o r an y p r i v a t e n e c
e s s i t y o f h i s own t h a t h e was moved t o j o i n i n a League
w ith th e m , f o r , b y t h e d e a th o f a woman, a l l c a lu m n ie s
w ere e x t i n c t , so t h a t n e i t h e r th e P o p es n o r t h e E m p ero r,
n o r a n y o t h e r p r i n c e , h a d th e n an y q u a r r e l w ith h im -----
y e t t h a t t h e y m ig h t know h i s good a f f e c t i o n t o them h e
w o u ld c o n t r i b u t e t h e sum d e s i r e d — o n ly on h i s p a r t h e
dem anded o f th em t h a t i n c a s e any p r i n c e in v a d e d h i s
d o m in io n s o n a c c o u n t o f r e l i g i o n , t h a t t h e y s h o u ld f u r
n i s h him a t t h e i r e x p e n se w ith 300 h o rse m e n c o m p le te ly
a rm e d , o r lu s h ip s we 11- a r r a y e d f o r w a r, t o s e r v e f o r 4
m o n th s -— an d l a s t o f a l l t h a t t h e C o n f e d e r a te s w i l l prom
i s e i n a l l c o u n c i l s , an d e v e ry w h e re e l s e , t o p ro m o te
an d d e fe n d t h e o p in io n t h a t D r. M a r tin , J u s t u s J o n a s ,
C r u c ig e , M e la n c h th o n , a n d P o m e ra n ia , h a d o f h i s m a rria g e *
A f t e r Queen Anne B q le y n ’ s t r a g i c f a l l t h e s e n e g o t i a t i o n s su n k
t o a g r e a t d e g r e e , f o r t h e k in g r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e L eague was no
lo n g e r n e c e s s a r y t o him u n l e s s h e was a llo w e d t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p i n
m a tte r s o f r e l i g i o n .
The docum ent p r e p a r e d b y M e la n c h th o n w as p r e s e n t e d b y t h e k in g
t o a c o n v o c a tio n , a n d a b o o k o f A r t i c l e s o f F a i t h a n d C e re m o n ie s,
1
B u r n e t, o p . c i t . . I l l , 173.
2
Ib id . . 173- 174.
83
l a t e r c a l l e d t h e "Ten A r t i c l e s , ” was d r a f t e d b y F o x e , on t h e b a s i s
o f t h e memorandum r e c e iv e d fro m W itte n b e r g . The t h r e e L u th e ra n
s a c ra m e n ts o f B a p tis m , P e n a n c e , a n d t h e A l t a r , w ere r e t a i n e d ;
j u s t i f i c a t i o n by f a i t h an d good w o rk s was p r o c la im e d ; p u r g a to r y was
d is a l lo w e d ; an d t h e r e a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e sa c ra m e n t was s t r o n g l y
1
a f f ir m e d . L u th e r , i n a l e t t e r t o J o h n F r e d e r ic k on M arch 2 8 , 1536,
h a d s a i d , " I f th e y w is h t o h a v e t h e a r t i c l e s e x p r e s s e d i n o t h e r l a n
g u ag e I do n o t o b j e c t , b u t I s h a l l p e r m it no a l t e r a t i o n i n t h e m a t t e r
o f f a i t h a n d te a c h i n g ev en now i t w ould b e d i s g r a c e f u l t o c o n c e d e
m ore t o t h e k in g th a n we w ould t o t h e E m peror an d P o p e s t i l l I
c o n s id e r i t a g r e a t d a n g e r t o u n i t e outw cvrdly w hen t h e p e o p le a r e
2
n o t o f one m in d .”
In t h e s e "T en A r t i c l e s " we s e e t h e d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e L eague
o f S c h m a lk a ld on t h e R e fo rm a tio n i n E n g la n d . B ut t h e E n g lis h p e o p le
o b je c te d s tr e n u o u s l y t o th e m , an d e v e n L u th e r s a i d , "The k in g w a n ts t o
b e G od. He fo u n d A r t i c l e s o f f a i t h v/hich e v e n t h e Pope n e v e r d i d . "
C ranm er an d C rom w ell b o th a c t e d t o - g e t h e r t o e f f e c t a u n io n b e
tw e e n t h e c h u rc h o f E n g la n d an d L u th e ra n is m . "T h e re c a n b e no d o u b t
t h a t t h i s was t h e p o l i c y o f b o th C ranm er a n d C ro m w e ll," s a y s G eorge P eriy ,
" b u t t h e m eans w h ich th e y to o k t o b r i n g i t a b o u t w ere s u c h a s w ere m o st
1
S m ith , Age o f th e R e fo rm a tio n . J u l .
2
C u r r i e , L e t t e r s o f M a r tin L u th e r . J 2 9 -3 3 u .
3
Sm ith, op. c i t . . JU2.
86
1
c a l c u l a t e d t o th w a r t i t . " I n 1538 th e y b ro u g h t a d e p u t a tio n o f
L u th e ra n D iv in e s t o E n g la n d t o e f f e c t a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w ith t h e k in g
on m a tte r s o f f a i t h . The L u th e ra n s w ere r e p r e s e n t e d b y J a c o b S tu r m iu s ,
M e la n c h th o n , B u c e r, a n d G eorge D ra c o . H en ry c a l l e d t h e B ish o p o f
T o n s ta l t o h i s a i d an d a rg u e d a g a i n s t t n e L u th e r a n s . The Document
a g re e d upo n was known a s t h e " T h ir t e e n A r t i c l e s , " t h e s u b s ta n c e o f
2
w h ich was a f te r w a r d s em bodied i n t h e " F o rty -tw o A r t i c l e s . "
A f t e r t h i s H en ry seem ed t o f o r s a k e t h e L u th e ra n c a u s e an d h e
p u b lis h e d t h e " I n s t i t u t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n M an," a n e x tre m e ly r e a c t i o n
a r y d o cu m en t, r e f l e c t i n g p a p a l v ie w s ; an d s a n c t i o n i n g t h e f o u r s a c -
3
ra m e n ts p r e v i o u s l y d i s c a r d e d .
By t h i s tim e i t seem ed a s th o u g h a l l h o p e s o f a n a l l i a n c e b e tw e e n
H en ry an d t h e L eague w ere a t a n e n d . "The n e g o t i a t i o n s f e l l th r o u g h
aS m ig h t h a v e b e e n e x p e c te d — - n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e d e s i r e f o r a L u th e ra n
a l l i a n c e re m a in e d a t t h e b a c k o f C rom v/ell’ s p o l i c y ; n o t avow ed b u t
l a t e n t ; an d i t was a n a tte m p t t o e n ta n g le H en ry i r r e v o c a b l y i n t h a t
4
p o l i c y t h a t h e c o m m itted t h e b lu n d e r w h icn c o s t him h i s h e a d ."
The pendulum now sw ung f a r i n t h e o p p o s ite d i r e c t i o n . H enry T i l l
e n a c te d t h e fam ous S ix A r t i c l e s , w h ich e f f e c t u a l l y c o o le d t h e f r i e n d
s h ip o f th e L u th e r a n s . I n t h e s e A r t i c l e s , T r a n s u b s t a n t i a t i o n w as
a f f ir m e d ; t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e communion i n b o th k in d s waS b ra n d e d a s
1
P e r r y , H i s t o r y o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n i n E n g la n d . J ü .
2
I b i d . . 3G.
3
S m ith , o p . c i t . , 3 G6 .
4
I n n e s , E n g la n d u n d e r t h e T u d o rs . 13 9 .
87
heresy; the marriage of priests was declared void; the vows of
chastity were to he perpetually binding; private masses were to
be continued; and auricular confession was declared to be nec—
1
essary. After the enactment of these Articles, Luther thanked
God that they were rid of the blasphemer.
Cromwell still refused to relinquish the hope of a Schmaikaldic
alliance and accordingly proposed a marriage between Henry Till and
Anne of Cleves. This was intended to touch the Bnperor, Charles V,
in a sore spot, by linking England and Germany. By the death of
Duke Charles of Guelders in June, Î559, the duchy passed to the
2
Duke of Cleves whose sister was the wife of John Frederick of Saxony.
There were three main obstacles to a union between England and the
League:- (l) the superior sense of security which would have been
offered by an alliance with either the Enperor or France; (2) the
rigid orthodoxy of the English king; (>) the strength of the German
3
princes was uncertain and untried. The Emperor had proposed that
Henry marry the Duchess of Milan, his kinswoman and the daughter of
4
the king of Denmark. The Emperor was,
then designing to break the League of Schmalkald, and to
make himself master of Germany; and therefore he took
much pains with the king, to divide him from the princes
there ; which was in great part effected by the statute of
1
Perry, cit.. 5î.
2
Fisher, A Political History of England. 439»
3
Ibid.. 439»
4
Burnet, cit., 1, 434-433»
t h e S ix A r t i c l e s — — u p o n w h ich t h e a m b a ssa d o rs o f t h e
p r in c e s h a d c u m p la in e d , a n d s a i d , ’ T h a t w h e re a s t h e k in g
h a d b e e n i n a f a i r w ay o f u n io n w ith theqn, h e h a d now
b ro k e i t o f f an d m ade so s e v e r e a l&w a b o u t communion
i n one k i n d , p r i v a t e m a s s e s , an d t h e c e l i b a t e o f t h e
c l e r g y , w h ic h d i f f e r e d so much from t h e i r d o c t r i n e , t h a t
th e y c o u ld e n t e r t a i n no f u r t h e r c o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith h im ,
i f t h a t law was n o t m itig a te d #
G a rd in e r was v e r y much opj^osed to t h e a l l i a n c e , a n d t o l d H enry
t h a t i t was b e lo w h i s d i g n i t y t o k e e p com pany w ith d u l l G erm ans who
t r i e d t o d i c t a t e i n m a t t e r s o f r e l i g i o n # The Duke o f S axony was a l s o
1
o p p o se d t o t h e m a tc h b e c a u s e h e d id n o t a p p ro v e o f t h e S ix A r t i c l e s #
B u t C rom w ell th o u g h t a L u th e ra n q u een w ould h e lp b r i n g down t h e P o p is h
p a r t y a t c o u r t an d so p u s h e d t h e a l l i a n c e th ro u g h # T h e re v/ere f o u r
m a in r e a s o n s why H enry c o n s e n te d t o t h e m a r r i a g e ; - ( t ) h e w a n te d t o
b e a s s u r e d i o f p ro m p t a s s i s t a n c e i n c a s e o f a n a t t a c k ; (2 ) h e w an ted
t h e f r i e n d s h i p o f S axony a n d t h e L ea g u e; ( 3 ) h e th o u g h t t h a t b y th e
i n t e r c e s s i o n o f C le v e s h e m ig h t s o f t e n many h a r s h in n o v a tio n s an d
ccom pose many r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s i n G erm any; ( 4 ) h e w a n te d a m a le
2
h e i r t o t h e th r o n e o f E n g la n d .
A c c o rd in g ly , t h e m a r r ia g e was consum m ated on J a n u a r y 6 , 1339*
H enry d i s l i k e d Anne a s so o n a s h e m et h e r an d was so o n lo o k in g f o r
some p r e t e n s e t o h a v e t h e m a r r ia g e d is s o l v e d . A l e g a l p r e t e x t was
goon d is c o v e r e d , a n d t h e m a r r ia g e b e tw e e n Anne a n d H enry was th u s
a n n u l l e d , b r i n g i n g t o a c l o s e t h e te m p o ra ry a l l i a n c e b e tw e e n E n g la n d
an d t h e S c h m a ik a ld ic League#
\
B u r n e t. H is to r y o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n o f t h e C hurch o f E n g la n d . I l l , 437#
2
F ish e r , c i t . . 439*
69
C rom w ell was so o n a f te r w a r d s e x ec u ted -.
The s u p p r e s s io n o f a b b e y s was l a i d a t h i s d o o r — -h e
was a l s o th o u g h t t o b e t h e p e r s o n t h a t k e p t t h e k in g
a n a t h e E n p e ro r a t su c h a d i s t a n c e — -a n d th e y d i d n o t
t h i n k i t im p o s s ib le i f h e w ere o u t o f t h e w ay , t o
b r i n g on a t r e a t y w ith t h e E n p e ro r; w h ic h t h e y h o p ed
w o u ld o p en t h e w ay f o r one w ith t h e Pope# i
W ith h i s f a l l , t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n w h ich h a d b e e n
b y h i s e n d e a v o rs so f a r a d v a n c e d was q u i t e sto p p e d # F o r a l l t h a t
C ranm er c o u ld do a f t e r t h i s was t o k ecjj t h e g ro u n d th e y h a d g a in e d .
2
B ut h e c o u ld n e v e r a d v a n c e much f u r th e r #
I t i s h a r d t o e s t i m a t e t h e r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r o f H enry V I I I .
W h ile h e was b u r n in g a n d b a n n in g L u th e ra n s a t home h e was t r y i n g t o
a l l y h im s e lf w ith th em a b r o a d . W h ile h e was b o a s t i n g o f h i s a c h ie v e
m e n ts i n d e f e n s e o f t h e C a th o lic c a u s e h e was a t t h e same moment
m e d i t a t i n g t o d e s e r t i t . Such a c h a r a c t e r c o u ld n e v e r , p e r h a p s , h a v e
c o n s i s t e n t l y e n f o r c e d a P r o t e s t a n t a l l i a n c e , "A g e n e r a l P r o t e s t a n t
L e a g u e ," s a y s R ic h a rd W atson D ixon In h i s H is to r y o r t n e C hurch o f
E n g la n d , "w as p r o b a b ly to o g r e a t a n id e a t o h a v e b e e n s e r i o u s l y e n
t e r t a i n e d b y t h e m ind o f H enry— . I f i t h a d come t o p a s s , i t w o u ld
h a v e c h a n g e d t h e f a c e o f E u ro p e . — The la m e n ta tio n s o f tn o s e who h o ld
t h a t E n g la n d m is s e d h e r way i n t h e R e fo rm a tio n b y n o t h a v in g j o i n e d
i n t h e g l o r i o u s m a rc h t o p e r f e c t freed o m an d e n l ig h te n m e n t, s h o u ld
1
Burnet, op. c i t #. I, 447#
.2
Ib id . . 458 .
90
1
b e c o n s id e r e d ."
The L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld a l s o i n f l u e n c e d t h e g ro w th o f P r o t e s t
a n tis m i n D enm ark. B e fo re t h e a d v e n t o f L u th e ra n is m i n t o t h i s c o u n t r y ,
t h e a b u s e s o f t h e C a th o lic C hurch w ere f l a g r a n t l y p r a c t i c e d . The
C hurch h e l d a n enorm ous am ount o f p r o p e r t y an d t h e p r e l a t e s l i v e d v e r y
2
d i s s i p a t e d l i v e s . U n d er C h r i s t i a n I I , r e l i g i o n w as s u b o r d in a t e d t o
p o l i t i c s , an d D enm ark w as c l o s e l y a l l i e d w ith t h e Pope a n d t h e E m p ero r.
By 1325 » L u th e ra n is m was f a i r l y s t r o n g , ow ing t o t h e e f f o r t s an d teach %
i n g o f Hans T a u s s e n . He w as m ade c h a p l a in i n 1326 b y F r e d e r i c k I an d
3
p e r m i t t e d t o p r e a c h th e new d o c t r i n e .
On A u g u st 2 Ù, 1337, b y t h e O dense R ece ss b o th c o n f e s s io n s w ere
a d m itte d t o t h e same e q u a l i t y . B ut i t was n o t u n t i l t h e a c c e s s i o n o f
C h r i s t i a n I I I t h a t t h e f a t e o f t h e C a th o lic C hurch was r e a l l y s e a l e d .
C h r i s t i a n I I I s e iz e d a l l t h e b i s h o p r i c s o f Denmark a n d b y t h e v o te o f
t h e R ig s r a a d on A u g su t 11, 1336 , a b o l is h e d t h e e p is c o p a c y . I n t u r n
h e s e p up o t h e r C h r i S t i a n l i k e b is h o p s o r s u p e r in t e n d e n ts vsho c o u ld
4
t e a c h o r p r e a c h t h e H o ly G o s p e l. He n e x t s e n t f o r B ugenhagen t o
r e a r r a n g e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a f f a i r s . He a r r i v e d i n J u l y , 1337» On
S e p te m b e r 2 h e c o n s e c r a t e d s e v e n men t o b e B is h o p s ; an d on S e p te m b e r
9 h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C openhagen a p p o i n tin g t h r e e p r o f e s s -
1
D ix o n . H is to r y o f t h e C hurch o f E n g la n d . I , 176.
2
B a in , S c a n d in a v ia , a. P o l i t i c a l H is to r y o f D enm ark. N orw ay, a n d Sweden
fro m 1513-19UÜ. 9 u .
3
I b i d . . 9 1 .
4
Kidd, Documents I llu s t r a t iv e o f th e C ontinental Reform ation. 323 *
91
o r s t o l e c t u r e on t h e O ld a n d t h e New T e s ta m e n ts , S t . , A u g u s tin e ,
t
L u th e r , a n d M e la n c h th o n . " C h r i s t i a n I I I was th e n r e c o g n iz e d a s t h e
2
r o y a l f a t h e r o f t h e n a t i o n a l C h u rch o f D enm ark."
At t h e r e q u e s t s o f t h e E l e c t o r o f S axony an d t h e L an d g rav e o f
H e s s e , C h r i s t i a n I I I s e n t en voys t o t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld i n
1337» At t h i s m e e tin g t h e p r i n c e s u r g e d t h a t h e h e a c c e p te d a s a
member b e c a u s e h e h a d d e p o s e d t h e b is h o p s fro m t h e i r e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
p o s t s an d b e c a u s e h e h a d e n c o u ra g e d th e p r e a c h in g o f t h e p u r e w ord
o f Cod. A ls o , i f h e w ere a d m itte d , t h e L eague w ould g a i n t h e s u p p o rt
3
o f N orw ay, S c h le s w ig , an d H o l s t e i n .
He was r e c e i v e d i n t o t h e L eague on A p r il 9 , 1336* &t a n a ss e m b ly
i n B ru n s w ic k , f o r a p e r io d o f n in e y e a r s . C h r i s t i a n I I I p ro m ise d t o
s u p p ly 3,uU 0 s o l d i e r s a t h i s own e x p e n se f o r a te rm o f t h r e e m o n th s,
o r e l s e 4 0 ,0 u 0 f l o r i n s . "By t h i s t r e a t y w ith D enm ark," s a y s Jo h a n n e s
J a n s s e n , " th e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld m a t e r i a l l y a l t e r e d i t s p o s i t i o n ,
f o r i t e x te n d e d i t s s p h e re b ey o n d t h e c o n f in e s o f Germany," an d
4
c o n n e c t e d 'i t s e l f w ith t h e g e n e r a l a f f a i r s o f E u ro p e . " I n r e t u r n ,
t h e c o n f e d e r a te s g u a r a n te e d t h e D a n ish k in g h e l p an d p r o t e c t i o n
a g a i n s t t h e C a t h o l i c s — w h ile t h e m ore i n f l u e n t i a l m em bers p ro m ise d
him a s s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t e v e r y s o r t o f a t t a c k — e v e n a g a i n s t t h e Snp—
3
e r o r h i m s e l f . D u rin g t h e S c h m a ik a ld ic W ar, P h i l i p o f H esse made
1
K id d , ogi. c i t . . 3 2 3 .
2
B la c k b u rn , H i s t o r y o r t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u rc h . 4 tu .
^ J a n s s e n , H is to r y o f t h e German P e o p le a t t h e C lo s e o f t h e M id d le A g e s,
7 1, 8.
4
I b i d . . 10.
3
Ibid.. 10.
92
f o u r a p p e a ls t o D enm ark, b u t r e c e iv e d no re s jjo n s e t o i i i s p l e a s
f o r h e l p . B u t, i n s p i t e o f t h i s tr e a tm e n t t h e L eague re m a in e d a
v e r y r e a l f a c t o r i n t h e g ro w th o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m i n D enm ark, f o r i t
e f f e c t u a l l y a b o l i s h e d t h e p a p a l in f l u e n c e fro m r e t u r n i n g an d b y i t s
v e r y in h e r e n t s t r e n g t h a i d e d t h e g ro w th o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m i n t h a t
c o u n tr y .
The cours® o f e v e n ts i n N orway was v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f
D enm ark, The tw o c o u n t r i e s , d u e t o t h e i r c l o s e g e o g r a p h i c a l p o s i t i o n ^
w ere a g r e a t p a r t o f t h e tim e u n d e r one m o n a rc h y . A c c o r d in g ly , t h e
R e fo rm a tio n h a v in g re a c h e d D enm ark, so o n s p r e a d t o N orw ay, C h r i s t i a n
I I , a k in g o f m a rk e d ly C a t h o lic t e n d e n c i e s , was s u c c e e d in g so w e ll
i n h i s p a p a l i s t i c r u l e t h a t F r e d e r i c k I becam e a la rm e d an d a p p e a le d
t o t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld f o r a i d . T hey r e c e iv e d h im i n t o t h e
L eague an d h e lp e d him t o c a j^ tu re C h r i s t i a n I I , vdio w as a f te r w a r d s
Î
im p ris o n e d f o r tw e n ty -s e v e n y e a r s t i l l h i s d e a t h . A f t e r t h i s Norway
becam e a p a r t o f t h e D a n ish m onarchy an d C h r i s t i a n I I I was r e c o g n iz e d
aSîTking o f Denm ark an d N orway b y a M a n ife s to o f O c to b e r > u, 1336.
C h r i s t i a n I I I an d th e R e fo rm a tio n w ere h a i l e d w ith jo y i n s o u th e r n
2
N orw ay; b u t t h e n o r t h h e l d o u t f o r C h r i s t i a n I I an d t h e o ld f a i t h .
B pt C h r i s t i a n I I I was d e te rm in e d t o e s t a b l i s h P r o t e s t a n t i s m . On May
1, 1537» h e f o r c e d t h e C a t h o lic A rc h b is h o p , O la f , t o f l e e t o L i e r r e ;
1
P h ilip p so n , Age o f th e Reform ation. îju .
2
M dd, 0£ . c i t .. 323.
93
an d on t h e Swme d ay h e la n d e d h i s f o r c e s a t B e rg e n . He f o llo w e d up
t h e M a n if e s to b y a r r e s t i n g t h e B ish o p o f Sam ar a n d t h e o t h e r C a th o lic
p r e l a t e s . He t h e n c o n f i s c a t e d t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s an d s u b -
t
s t i t u t ê d s u p e r in t e n d e n ts f o r B isiio p s a s h e h a d done i n D enm ark.
B ut t h e p e o p le o f Norway w ere much h a r d e r to c o n v e rt to P r o t
e s t a n t i s m th a n t h e p e o p le o f D enm ark. Up t o 1339, w h ich m ark ed t h e
d e a th o f C h r i s t i a n I I I , t h e R e fo rm a tio n h a d n o t made m uch p r o g r e s s .
I n f a c t i t v/as a t f i r s t d e t r i m e n t a l to t h e p r o g r e s s o f N orw ay. I t
s u p p r e s s e d t h e c r e a t i o n o f a N orw eg ian l i t e r a t u r e , d id l i t t l e f o r
2
e d u c a tio n , a n d dam pened r e l i g i o u s e n th u s ia s m . B ut i n s p i t e o f t h i s
f i r s t u n s u c c e s s f u l te n d e n c y t h e R e fo rm a tio n f i n a l l y won o u t d u e , i n
no S m all m e a s u re , t o t h e i n f l u e n c e w h ich t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld
e x e r t e d i n i t s e a r l y h i s t o r y .
I n Sweden t h e R e fo rm a tio n was f a r l e s s a p o p u la r m ovement a n d
3
m ore p o l i t i c a l . The p e o p le w ere l a r g e l y a n t i — L u th e ra n u n t i l t h e
a c c e s s i o n o f C u s ta v u s E r ic k s o n o f V asa t o t h e k in g s h ip on J u n e 7» *323#
G rustavus V asa d u r in g h i s w a n d e rin g s h a d becom e i n c l i n e d t o t h e
R e fo rm a tio n an d b y t h e a i d o f t h e S w ed ish laym en an d n o b le s h a d s e c u r e d
4
h i s s c e p t r e fro m D enm ark. I n 1323 h e a b o l i s h e d t h e C a th o lic m a ss ;
h e h a d t h e New T e sta m e n t p u b li s h e d i n t h e S w ed ish to n g u e ; an d h e r e n d -
1
K id d , c i t . . 3 2 3 .
2
B a in , o p . c i t . . 9 9 .
3
I b i d . . 102.
4
Blackburn, op. c i t ., 411.
94
1
e r e d e x co n m m n lc atio n i n e f f e c t m l . The p e o p le o b j e c t e d t o t h e s e in n o v a
t i o n s so s t r o n g l y t h a t h e t h r e a t e n e d t o a b d i c a t e i f h i s w is h e s w ere
n o t g r a n t e d . T h is was a c l e v e r p i e c e o f s t r a t e g y an d i n t h e D ie t o f
T e s t e r a s , 1^44, h i s dem ands w ere g r a n t e d . A l l s x trp lu s re v e n u e s o f t h e
C hurch w ere t o go t o t h e cro w n ; t h e n o b i l i t y was a llo w e d t o t a k e a l l
r e l i g i o u s la n d s t o w h ich t h e y h a d h a d a good c la im s i n c e 14^4; t h e
b is h o p s w ere no lo n g e r t o b e c o n firm e d a t Rome; t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c s i n
te m p o ra l m a tte r s w ere t o go t o t h e c i v i l c o u r t s a l o n e ; a n d P e t e r ’ s
2
p e n c e was t o go t o t h e cro w n .
V asa i s c o n s id e r e d t h e f o u n d e r o f Sw eden’ s g r e a t n e s s h e ch an g ed
a p o o r p e o p le i n t o a t h r i v i n g n a t i o n . "B ut i t c a n n o t b e d e n ie d t h a t
t h e R e fo rm a tio n , in t r o d u c e d b y f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e w i l l o f t h e p e o p le ,
w orked a t f i r s t v e r y i n j u r i o u s l y on m o ra ls an d c u l t u r e . "
At t h e D ie t o f N urem berg, i n G erm any, i n 1^43, t h e q u e s ti o n o f
t h e a d m is s io n o f t h e K in g o f Sweden in t o t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld was
s e t a s i d e t o b e d is c u s s e d a t t h e n e x t m e e tin g o f t h e L e a g u e .4 B ut
no f u r t h e r m e n tio n i s fo u n d o f an y c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n t h e League o f
S c h m a lk a ld an d Sw eden. "T he R e fo rm a tio n i n S w ed en ," s a y s N is b e t B a in ,
"w as p r a c t i c a l l y t h e w ork o f one s t r o n g man a c t i n g c o n t r a r y t o th e
3
r e l i g i o u s i n s t i n c t s o f t h e n a t i o n f o r t h e good o f t h e s t a t e . "
1
P h ili p p s o n , o p . c i t . . 1^ 8 .
2
B a in , 0£ . c i t . . 1 u 2 ff.
3
P h i l i p p s o n , 02# c i t . . 139 .
4
J a n s s e n , o p . c i t . . V I, 2 2 7 .
5
B ain, op. c i t . , 114.
93
T h e re v/ere o t h e r in f l u e n c e s a t w o rk , h o w e v e r, a s i d e fro m t h e
e f f o r t s o f G ust a v u s V a sa . Sweden was n o t so ex p o sed t o German I n f lu e n c e
aS w as D enm ark. B ut n e v e r t h e l e s s , h a d t h e r e b e e n no p o w e rfu l p o l i t i c a l
an d r e l i g i o u s le a g u e i n Germany t o p r e v e n t t h e s p r e a d o r p a p a l i n f l u e n c e
n o rth w a rd s i t i s d o u b tf u l w h e th e r t h e R e fo rm a tio n c o u ld h a v e p r o g r e s s
e d i n Sweden a s i t d i d .
In I c e l a n d t h e R e fo rm a tio n e n c o u n te r e d g r e a t h o s t i l i t y , m a k in g
l i t t l e headw ay t i l l 1548. G is s e r E i n a r s s e n who becam e t h e B ish o p o f
S k a lh o l t i n la b o r e d f o r y e a r s i n a n e f f o r t t o re fo rm t h e Cfhuroh
1
a f t e r t h e D a n ish m o d e l. The r e a c t i o n a r y p a r t y was h e a d e d b y J o h n
A re s e n , t h e B ish o p o f Holum , who was e x e c u te d a s a t r a i x o r a t S k a l
h o l t on November 7 , l^ ^ u . I n 1531 t h e D a n ish f l e e t a r r i v e d a n d
r e s t o r e d o r d e r an d a f t e r t h a t d a t e t h e R e fo rm a tio n m et w ith no f u r -
2
t h e r r e s i s t a n c e . In f a c t , " th e l a s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f C a th o liô iS m
3
d is a P jje a r e d fro m I c e l a n d i n 1332. " The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e L eague o f
S c h m a lk a ld i n t h i s s m a ll c o u n tr y came o n ly a s a n i n d i r e c t r e f l e c t i o n
fro m t h e e f f e c t w h ic h i t h a d p ro d u c e d i n D enm ark.
One w o u ld e x p e c t t o f i n d a v e r y p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e e m a n a tin g
fro m t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld i n S w i tz e r l a n d , b u t s u c h was n o t t h e
c a s e . I n 1329 P h i l i p o f H esse t r i e d t o b r i n g a b u u t a u n io n b e tw e e n
1
K id d , 0£ . c i t . , 3 2 3 .
2
Bain, op. c i t . , lui.
3
Kidd, 0£ . c i t .. 323.
96
t h e German an d S w iss t h e o l o g i a n s ; h u t L u th e r r e j e c t e d Z w in g li’ s o f f e r
o f t h e h an d o f h r o th e r n o o d a t M arb u rg i n t h e same y e a r# " F o r th e
same r e a s o n ," s a y s C h a r lto n L e w is, " t h e S w iss w ere n o t a d m itte d t o
t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L e a g u e , so t h a t t h e d i v i s i o n b e tw e e n Germ any an d
I
S w itz e r la n d c o n tin u e d , i n s p i t e o f t h e i r common P r o t e s t a n t i s m # ”
On F e b ru a ry 2 7 , 1331 t h e c i t i e s o f S t r a s s b u r g , C o n s ta n c e ,
in g e n , a n d L in d a u , fo u n d r e f u g e w ith th e S c h m a lk a ld ic League# B ut
t h e y w ere n o t so i n t e n s e l y Z w in g lia n a s was t h e r e s t o f S w itz e rla n d #
T hey h a d a p p ro a c h e d m ore c l o s e l y t h e L u th e ra n th e o lo g y i n t h e i r
T e t r a p o l i t a n C o n fe ssio n # B ut when t h e Le«^gue m et a t F r a n k f o r t i n
1339 , t h e s e c i t i e s r e f u s e d t o s u b s c r ib e t o t h e L e a g u e rs p r o j e c t f o r
2
m i l i t a r y d e fe n s e # A lth o u g h t h e L eague a c c o m p lish e d l i t t l e i n
S w itz e r la n d i t re m a in e d a b u lw a rk an d p o in t o f d e f e n s e f o r a l l
P r o t e s t a n t c o u n t r i e s i n n o r t h e r n E urope#
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o a c c o u n t f o r th e e x tre m e ly s l i g h t h o ld w h ich
L u th e ra n is m g a in e d i n F ra n c e # I t was i n p a r t d u e t o t h e p o l i t i c a l
an d r e l i g i o u s i n t r i g u e s o f F r a n c is I an d t o t h e d i f f e r e n t p s y c h o lo g y
a n d tem p eram en t o f t h e F re n c h p e o p le # F r a n c is i n a l l h i s d e a l in g s
w ith t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld , a n d C h a rle s V, s h i f t e d fro m o n e s id e
Î
L e w is, H i s t o r y o f t h e German P e o p le fro m t h e E a r l i e s t T im e s.
2
P o l l a r d , " C o n f lic t o f C re e d s a n d P a r t i e s i n G erm any," C am bridge
M odern H i s t o r y . I I , 2 i 6 .
91
t o t h e o t h e r a n d s t r o v e a lw a y s t o m a in ta in a b a la n c e o f i;ow er i n
E u ro p e .
I n 1334 F r a n c is a i d e d t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L eague i n i t s s u c c e s s f u l
e f f o r t t o r e s t o r e Duke U l r i c h o f W urtem berg t o p o w e r. On May 2 6 ,
1332, F r a n c is s ig n e d a fo rm a l t r e a t y w ith B a v a r i a , S ax o n y , a n d H e s se ;
b u t i t a v a i l e d l i t t l e f o r t h e German t h e o l o g i a n s w ere o p p o se d t o i t .
N e v e r th e le s s , th r o u g h o u t i t s h i s t o r y , " th e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld
1
s t r e t c h e d o u t f r i e n d l y h a n d s t o F r a n c e ."
W h ile F r a n c is I was i n c l o s e a l l i a n c e w ith t h e P r o t e s t a n t p r i n c e s
an d H enry V I I I , h e a p p o in te d J e a n d u B e lla y t o b e B ish o p o f P a r i s .
B e l la y was a p r e l a t e who was g r e a t l y i n f a v o r o f re fo rm i n t h e F re n c h
2
C a th o lic C h u rc h . F r a n c is n e x t f a v o r e d t h e Pope a n d is s u e d a n E d ic t
d e c l a r i n g t h a t an y o n e c o n v ic te d b y tw o w itn e s s e s o f b e in g a L u th e ra n
3
was t o b e b u rn e d . I n 1334 h e e n t e r e d i n t o a s e c r e t t r e a t y w ith t h e
German P r o t e s t a n t s a n d a l l L u th e ra n p e r s e c u t i o n s i n F ra n c e c e a s e d .
In t h e same y e a r h e s e n t d u B e l la y t o G erm any t o e f f e c t a r e l i g i o u s
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n ; a n d M e la n c h th o n d rew up a p a p e r f o r t h e o c c a s io n , b u t
n o th in g came o f i t . On J u l y 13 , 1333, F r a n c is i s s u e d th e E d ic t o f
Coucy b a n n in g a l l L u th e ra n p e r s e c u t i o n s ; a n d i n t h e same y e a r i n v i t e d
B u c e r an d M e la n c h th o n to F ra n c e f o r a c o n f e r e n c e ; b u t J o h n F r e d e r ic k
1
K i t c h i n . H is to r y o f F r a n c e . I I , 2 3 3 .
2
T ille y , "Reformation in France," Cambridge Modem H isto ry . I I , 2o4.
3
Ibid.. 2Ü3.
98
o f S axony r e f u s e d t o l e t th em g o . I n 1333 F r a n c is was f o r c e d b y t h e
I n c r e a s i n g m enace o f t h e H ap sb u rg s t o make an a l l i a n c e w ith th e
S c h m a lk a ld ic L ea g u e, "He w o u ld h a v e h a d no s c r u p l e s i n s u p p o r tin g
a b ro a d t h e h e r e s y h e w o u ld h a v e s u p p r e s s e d a t home b u t h e fo u n d t h e
German p r i n c e s w ould a c c e p t h i s f r i e n d s h i p on no te rra s s a v e th o s e o f
t
t o l e r a t i o n t o th e F re n c h P r o t e s t a n t s , " B ut n e i t h e r t h e E d ic t o f
C oucy, n o r t h e one i n M ay, 1336, h a d much e f f e c t i n a i d i n g t h e P r o t -
2
e s t a n t s i n F r a n c e , T he L u th e ra n s i n F ra n c e w ere p e r s e c u t e d c o n -
3
s i s t e n t l y , "The F r e n c h ," s a y s A, A, T i l l e y , "w ere f a v o r a b l e t o
re fo rm o f t h e c h u rc h b y m o d e ra te m ean s— b u t th e y w ere s ta te s m e n a n d
4
h u m a n is ts , n o t t h e o l o g i a n s , " 13iey so o n t r a n s f e r r e d t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e
t o C a lv in a n d f o r t h e n e x t tv / e n ty - f iv e y e a r s o f t h e i r d i r e s t n e e d ,
t h e y lo o k e d f o r c o n s o l a t i o n an d s u p p o rt t o t h i s one man an d h i s
d o c t r i n e s . The p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f H enry I I v /ith t h e German
P r o t e s t a n t L eague g av e t h e F re n c h R e fo rm a tio n a c e r t a i n o p p o r tu n i ty
f o r g ro w th ; b u t , a f t e r t h e R e c e ss o f A u g sb u rg , i n 1333, H enry I I an d
t h e Pope becam e f ir m f r i e n d s an d t h e p a r t y o f t h e G u is e s p e r s e c u t e d
3
t h e L u th e ra n s t i l l t h e f a i t h was a lm o s t w ip ed o u t i n F r a n c e ,
A lth o u g h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld was v e r y
s l i g h t i n F ra n c e i t a t l e a s t p r o t e c t e d t h e L u th e ra n f a i t h a n d p r o -
1
S m ith . Age o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n . 197,
2
T i l l e y , c i t . . 286.
3
In t h e y e a r 1334 t h e r e w ere 4uu L u th e ra n s im p ris o n e d a n d U b u rn e d .
»
I b i d . . 287 .
3
H urst, Short H istory o f th e Reform ation. 324.
99
lo n g e d i t s g ro w th f o r a few y e a r s , t h u s , i n d i r e c t l y a i d i n g t h e p r o g r e s s
o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t R e fo rm a tio n i n F r a n c e .
S i m i la r c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l e d i n t h e N e th e r la n d s . "H ere t h e
R e fo rm a tio n s u f f e r e d fro m t h e d i v i s i o n s a n d f a n a t i c i s m s o f t h e P r o t -
1
e s t a n t s . " The n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n i n t h i s c o u n tr y
was to w a rd t h e C a l v i n i s t d o c t r i n e s an d b y 1339 t h e r e w ere e s ti m a t e d
t o b e one h u n d re d th o u s a n d P r o t e s t a n t s o f t h e C a l v i n i s t i c f a i t h i n
t h i s c o u n tr y . A lth o u g h t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld p la y e d no d i r e c t
p a r t i n t h i s g ro w th , i t was r e a l l y a p h a s e o f t h e sam e g e n e r a l m ove
m e n t, t h e acme o f w h ic h w as re a c h e d b y t h e League o f S c h m a lk a ld i n
1333 &t t h e D ie t o f A u g sb u rg .
The R e fo rm a tio n re a c h e d P o la n d so o n a f t e r i t s o u tb r e a k i n
2
G erm any. P a u l P o x , i n h i s h i s t o r y o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n i n P o la n d s a y s .
F o llo w in g t h e l i n e s o f l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e , i t p e n e t r a t e d
th r o u g h t h e e s t a b l i s h e d c h a n n e ls o f t r a d e , com m erce, and
e d u c a tio n , i n t o t h e l a r g e r c o m m ercial c e n t e r s , w here
t h e r e was a c o n s id e r a b le German e le m e n t, a n a i n t o th e
l i f e o f t h e c o u n tr y a r i s t o c r a c y w h ich s o u g h t k n ow ledge
an d c u l t u r e i n t h e U n i v e r s i t i e s o f Germany#
By 134u German L u th e ra n is m w as r e i n f o r c e d b y C a lv in is m fro m
G eneva. B ut now , ow ing t o t h e k i n g ’ s g r e a t a g e , t h e C a th o lic p a r t y
d e c l a r e d t h a t th e K ing w as f a v o r in g t h e s p r e a d o f h e r e s y . A c c o r d in g ly ,
P a u l I I I , i n a l e t t e r d a te d J u l y 3 , 1346, u r g e d S ig ism u n d I t o t a k e
a n a c t i v e p a r t i n t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic War on t h e s id e o f t h e f o r c e s d e —
3
f e n d in g t h e c a u s e o f t h e C a th o lic C h u rch . B ut S ig ism u n d r e f u s e d t o
1
H u r s t , O P. c i t . . 3 3 3 .
2
Fox. The Reformation in Poland. 21.
3
Ib id . . 38.
ÎO O
o b ey t h e Pope an d on A u g u st 9 » 134u, i n a n o r d e r i s s u e d t o t h e S t a r —
o s t a s I n C racow , f o r b a d e t h e P o l i s h c i t i z e n s t o t a k e p a r t o a c e i t h e r
Î
s i d e i n t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic War*
The R e fo rm a tio n p r o g r e s s e d e v e n m ore r a p i d l y u n d e r S ig ism u n d I I ,
who b e l i e v e d s i n c e r e l y i n t h e fu n d a m e n ta ls o f t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n ,
b u t was i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e fo rm i n % hich t h e y w ere t o b e e x p r e s s e d .
By 1373 » t h e P a c t o f C o n f e d e r a tio n a t W arsaw , r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n
an d e q u a l i t y w ere l e g a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e re a lm a n d h a d t o b e sw orn
2
t o b y e v e r y n e w ly e l e c t e d k in g . I t i s s a f e t o c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e
R e fo rm a tio n c o u ld n e v e r h a v e « .ch iev ed t h e g r e a t s u c c e s s i t d i d i n
P o la n d h a d i t n o t b e e n f o r t h e tr® n e n d o u s i n f l u e n c e o f German L u th
e r a n is m , w h ich was e n f o r c e d an d s p r e a d b y t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e L eague
o f S c h m a lk a ld ,
In L iv o n ia a n d E s th o n i a , t h e m ost a d v a n c e d o u t p o s t s o f t h e E m p ire ,
t h e p o p u la tio n was f a v o r a b l y d is p o s e d t o t h e P r o t e s t a n t R e fo rm a tio n .
The A rc h b ish o p o f R ig a i n Î327 e s t a b l i s h e d t h e e v a n g e l i c a l c h u rc h
3
s y ste m an d i n 1333 e n d e a v o re d t o j o i n t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L e a g u e , B ut
i t was n o t t i l l 1338 t h a t t h e a l l i a n c e was c o n c lu d e d . W illia m o f
B ra n d e n b u rg becam e t h e A rc h b ish o p i n 1339» s-nd i n a s h o r t ti m e , due t o
t h e p r o g r e s s a n d a c t i v i t y o f t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld , a l l L iv o n ia an d
4
E s th o n ia em b raced t h e A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n ,
1
P o x , o p , c i t , . 3 8 .
2
I b i d . . 63 .
M o e lle r . H is to r y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C hurch 1 5 1 7 -1 6 4 ^ . I l l , 138 *
4
K ortz. Text-book o f Church H isto ry . I I , l l 8 .
101
The L eague a l s o i n f l u e n c e d t h e s p r e a d o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m i n
B ohem ia an d M o ra v ia , T h ese s t a t e s w ere among t h e f i r s t t o c o r r e s p o n d
w ith L u th e r , I n 1332 t h e y p r e s e n te d a n I p o lo g y o f t h e i r d o c t r i n e s
an d u s a g e s t o t h e M a rg ra v e , G eorge o f B ra n d e n b u rg , o f w h ich L u th e r
1
f u l l y a p p ro v e d . I n 1353 th e y p r e s e n t e d t h e i r own C o n fe s s io n t o
t h e i r k in g , F e r d in a n d ; an d i n 1342 L u th e r o f f e r e d h i s h a n d a s a p le d g e
o f p e r p e t u a l f e l l o w s h i p , "The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Saxon r e f o r m e r s ,"
sa y s W i l l i s t o n W a lk e r, "g a v e t h e e v a n g e l i c a l m ovem ent i n B ohem ia
a n d M o ra v ia a p o w e rfu l im p e tu s , a n d l a r g e l y L u th e ra n !z e d t h e re m n a n ts
o f t h e w ork o f H u s s ," D u rin g t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic War t h e s e tw o s t a t e s
s e n t v o l u n t e e r s t o a i d t h e P r o t e s t a n t L eague an d r e f u s e d t o a i d
F e r d in a n d , In c o n se q u e n c e o f t h i s a c t i o n F e rd in a n d i n f l i c t e d s e v e r e
c h a s tis e m e n t on th e m . But t h e f a i t h c o n tin u e d t o grow a n d " i n a
3
h u n d re d i n h a b i t a n t s , n o t m ore th a n one o r tw o w ere C a t h o l i c s , " I n
t h i s i n s t a n c e , a s b e f o r e , th e S c h m a lk a ld ic L eague a id e d P r o t e s t a n t i s m
i n B ohem ia an d M o ra v ia by i t s s u p p o r t o f L u th e ra n is m a n d b y i t s f i n a l
d e f e a t o f C a th o lic is m i n n o r t h e r n E u ro p e ,
By 1321, L u th e r ’ s d o c t r i n e s h a d p e n e t r a t e d t o H u n g a ry , b u t t h e
k in g o f H u n g ary , Lew I I , op^vosed tnem t i l l h i s d e a th i n 1326, F e r
d in a n d was th e n e l e c t e d k in g o f H un g ary a n d due t o t h e i n f l u e n c e w h ich
t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld e x e r t e d on him t h e Synod o f E rd a d i n 1343
1 .
K u r tz , o p , c i t , . 123,
2
W a lk e r, The R e fo rm a tio n . 288,
K u r tz , 02# c i t , , 123,
3
102
1
a d o p te d t h e A u g sb u rg C o n f e s s io n ,
A s id e fro m t h e p o s i t i v e I n f lu e n c e o f t h e L eague i n t h e c o u n t r i e s
m e n tio n e d a b o v e , i t a l s o , u n f o r u n a t e l y , e x e r t e d a n e g a t i v e in f l u e n c e
i n I t a l y , S p a in , an d I r e l a n d ,
The i n t e r c o u r s e b e tw e e n I t a l y an d G erm any was v e ry c l o s e . T h e re
was c o n t i n u a l s tr e a m o f t r a d e r s a n d s t u d e n t s f lo w in g i n b o th
2
d i r e c t i o n s . I n V e n ic e , t h e r e was a l a r g e t e u t o n i c c o lo n y ; b y 1319
L u th e r ’ s b o o k s w ere b e i n g s o ld i n Lom bardy, a n d t h e w orks o f L u th e r ,
M e la n c h th o n , an d o t h e r s was b e in g t r a n s l a t e d i n t o L a t i n , "A c co rd
in g t o t h e a m b a ss a d o r, F ra n c e s c o C o n t a r i n i , t h e L u th e ra n s o f Germany
boasted in 1333 that theirr sympathizers in Italy, alone, would make
3
a n arm y s u f f i c i e n t t o d e l i v e r them from t h e p r i e s t s , " W e h a v e
a l r e a d y n o te d how t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L eague a p p e a le d t o t h e V e n e tia n s
f o r a i d b e f o r e t h e o u tb r e a k o f w ar i n 1346, B ut t h e C a th o lic p a r t y ,
b e in g n a t u r a l l y p o w e rfu l i n I t a l y p e r s e c u t e d a l l who f a v o r e d t h e
L u th e ra n s o r t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld , I n f a c t , b y J u l y 21 , 1342,
t h e I n q u i s i t i o n w as c o m p le te ly r e o r g a n iz e d o n t h e S p a n is h m odel
4
a t Borne an d p e r s e c u t i o n s o f L u th e ra n s y m p a th iz e r s was s u r e a n d s w i f t .
The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e L eague was s i m i l a r i n S p a in , S p a in h a d
b e e n p r e p a r e d f o r t h e R e fo rm a tio n b y hum anism ; a n d m any S p a n ia rd s
1
K u r tz , O P . c i t , . 126,
2
C o l l i n s , " C a th o l ic S o u th ." C am bridge M odern H i s t o r y , I I , 3©ü.
3
I b i d , ■ 5Ô1,
4
Walker, op. c i t , . 293,
105
i n f o r e i g n l a n d s , h a v in g a d o p te d L u th e ra n is m , s p r e a d th e h e r e t i c a l
1
w r i t i n g s th r o u g h o u t S p a in , The w h o le re fo rm movement i n S p a in was
c h a r a c t e r i z e d 'by t h e s e c r e t p r o p a g a tio n o f L u th e ra n l i t e r a t u r e . Due
t o t h i s i n f l u e n c e , i n 134-5, t h e New T e s ta m e n t was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
2
S p a n is h b y F r a n c is E n z in a s , B ut t h e R e fo rm a tio n was so o n c r u s h e d
a n d a s i n I t a l y t h e b r i e f g ro w th o f t h e movement s e r v e d o n ly t o
i n c i t e t h e o f f i c i a l s o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n an d a l l s y m p a th iz e rs o f L u th e r
o r t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L ea g u e, w h ich w as o p p o s in g t h e i r E m p ero r, C h a rle s
V, w e re b i t t e r l y p e r s e c u t e d ,
" I f i t h a d n o t b e e n f o r t h e c l o s e c o n n e c tio n w ith E n g la n d ," s a y s
H enry H o llo w a y , " I r e l a n d w ould h a v e re m a in e d q u i t e o u t s i d e t h e E e f -
3
o n a a tio n m o v em en t," Owing t o t h a t c o n n e c tio n , a s e r i e s o f e c c l e s i a s t
i c a l l e g i s l a t i v e a c t s to o k p l a c e , c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l t o th o s e o f E n g la n d ;
b u t t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f t h e p e o p le re m a in e d o u t s i d e t h e s y s te m su p
p o s e d ly e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e s e a c t s . Due i n no s m a ll p a r t t o t h e in f lu e n c e
o f t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld on t h e R e fo rm a tio n i n E n g la n d a l r e a d y n o te d ^
P a r lia m e n t p a s s e d a n a c t a u t h o r i z i n g t h e K in g , h i s h e i r s , a n d s u c c e s s
o r s , t o b e t h e suprem er, h e a d o f t h e c h u rc h o f I r e l a n d . Due t o t h i s
t y r a n n i c a l a s s u m p tio n o f r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t y t h e R e fo rm a tio n w as a
c o m p le te f a i l u r e i n I r e l a n d , H enry o n ly s u c c e e d e d i n m ak in g th e m m ore
1
H u r s t , o p , c i t i . 5 3 2 ,
2
I b i d , . 5 3 2 .
3
Holloway, Reformation in Irela n d . 5u,
104
d e v o te d t o t h e POjje, an d t o t h i s d ay t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f I r i s h
1
p e o p le b e lo n g t o t h e Roman C a th o lic C h u rch ,
i
Holloway, op, c i t , , 23^,
105
C o n c lu s io n
The L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld e x e r t e d a p o w e rfu l an d f a r - r e a c h i n g
i n f l u e n c e on t h e g ro w th o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m i n E u ro p e , "T he P e a c e o f
A u g sb u rg ," s a y s J o a h n n e s J a n s s e s n , " o b ta in e d c o m p le te fre e d o m i n t h e
e x e r c i s e o f t h e r i g h t o f c h u rc h m anagem ent, w h ich th e y c la im e d a n d
w ere em pow ered t o l e g i s l a t e w ith i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s c o n c e r n in g
d o c t r i n e , c h u rc h w o r s h ip , e c c l e s i a s t i c a l g o v e rn m e n t, a n d d i s c i p l i n e ,
t
a n d t h e a p p o i n tin g an d d e p o s i t i o n o f c h u rc h o f f i c i a l s , " The c h i e f
l o s e r b y t h i s P e a c e w as t h e H o ly Homan E m p ire w h ich h a d b e e n
c o m p e lle d t o re n o u n c e i t s c la im t o b e t h e g u a r d ia n o f t h e u n i v e r s a l
f a i t h , She g a i n e r s w ere t h e s e c u l a r p r i n c e s , no lo n g e r s e c u l a r ,
f o r now , a s c h i e f b is h o p s , t h e y h a d t h e i r p e o p le m ore th a n e v e r
u n d e r t h e i r c o n t r o l .
R e v ie w in g t h e r e l i g i o u s r e s u l t s o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n i n a b r o a d e r
s e n s e i t m eant t h a t a l l men s h o u ld h a v e fre e d o m o f a c c e s s t o God-----
th e y w ere no lo n g e r f o r c e d t o commune v /ith Him th r o u g h t h e m e d ia tio n
o f p r i e s t s . The R e fo rm a tio n g av e t h e p e o p le r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s i n
t h e i r own la n g u a g e , an d i t s t a r t e d new t r a i n s o f r e l i g i o u s t h i n k i n g .
R e l ig io n was l e s s a t h i n g o f t h e c l e r g y , a n d m ore a t h i n g o f t h e
p e o p le . The R e fo rm a tio n b ro k e up t h e m e d ie v a l c h u rc h s y s te m . L e a rn
in g an d i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e o u tg re w e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t y a n d to o k a
1
J a n n s e n , H i s t o r y o f t h e German P e o p le a t t h e C lo se o f t h e M id d le
A g e s. V I, 563 .
c o u r s e o f i t s own. The R e fo rm a tio n b e g a n t h a t im p u ls e w h ich d i s
t i n g u i s h e d t h e m o d em fro m t h e m e d ie v a l s p i r i t .
The p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s w ere no l e s s im p o r ta n t . The s t a t e s
o n ce h a v in g b e e n g a t h e r e d i n t o a L eag u e, c o u ld no lo n g e r r e c o g n iz e
I
a c e n t e r o f a u t h o r i t y f o r j u d i c i a l an d a d m i n s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s , By
t h e a l l i a n c e b e tw e e n t h e S c h m a lk a ld ic L eague a n d F r a n c e , an d b y
H e n ry ’ I I ’ s a s s u m p tio n o f t h e t i t l e . P r o t e c t o r o f G erm anic L i b e r t i e s .
i n 1332 , a p r e t e x t f o r i n t e r f e r e n c e s i n German a f f a i r s was n e v e r
w a n tin g i n t h e f u t u r e . The same c a u s e s w h ich h a d i n s p i r e d t h e
E m p e ro r’ s p o s i t i o n i n Germ any sw ep t away t h e l a s t se m b lan ce o f h i s
a u t h o r i t y th r o u g h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .
U n d e r s ta n d in g , t h r i f t , a n d a t le n g th p o w e r, came t o n e a r l y a l l
th e f o llo w e r s o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n , G eorge D ry e r i n h i s H is to r y o f t h e
C h r i s t i a n C hurch s a y s .
T h at Germ any i s t h e la n d o f l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h e r o f
t h e w o r ld ; t h a t sh e i s a n a b l e c o n t e s t a n t f o r t h e
t r a d e a n d com m erce o f t h e g lo b e ; t h a t sh e i s t h e
s t r o n g e s t pow er on t h e c o n t in e n t o f E u ro p e , sh e owes
t o many t h i n g s , b u t t o n o n e m ore th a n t o t h e w ork
an d in f l u e n c e o f t h a t R e fo rm a tio n b e g a n w ix h in h e r
b o r d e r s b y t h e g r e a t e s t o f h e r so n s b u t w hose b l e s s
in g s h a v e c r o s s e d a l l s e a s an d en co m p assed t h e w o rld .
The n u m e ric a l r e s u l t o f t h e s t r u g g l e o f t h e R e fo rm e rs t o f r e e
t h e i n d i v i d u a l fro m t h e g r a s p in g pow er o f t h e m e d ie v a l c h u rc h c a n b e
e s ti m a t e d a s f o l l o w s : -
1
B ry c e , H o ly Roman B n p ir e . 3 2 1 ,
2
D r y e r , H is to r y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u rch . I l l , 19©.
1Ù7
I n 137u s e v e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f th e G erm ans a n d A u s t r ia n s w ere
1
P r o t e s t a n t s ,
I n 1863 t h e P r o t e s t a n t s i n Germany a n d A u s t r i a num bered tw e n ty
2
m i l l i o n , a n d t h e C a th o lic s n um bered tw e n ty -tw o m i l l i o n .
I n 19 10, i n Germany an d A u s t r i a , t h e P r o t e s t a n t s num bered
3 7 >673,000 a n d t h e C a th o lic s num bered 2 9 , 7 uü,ùO O , T h is g o e s t o show
t h a t , t o - d a y , i n Germany an d A u s t r i a , t h e P r o t e s t a n t s c o m p ris e a b o u t
3
36% o f t h e w h o le p o p u l a t i o n .
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e te r m in e t h e m o st im p o r ta n t, s i n g l e
a c c o m p lish m e n t o f t h e L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld b u t c e r t a i n l y , h a d t h e
L eague f a i l e d , t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e o ld Roman c i v i l i z a t i o n — t h e
goo d o f t h e few a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e m any—m ig h t h a v e m ark ed t h e
c i v i l i z a t i o n o f t h e f u t u r e a s i t h a d done t h a t o f t h e p a s t#
1
S m ith . Age o f t h e R e fo rm a tio n . 152,
2
F a y . The T h re e Germany s . I , 349 •
3
Smith, op, p i t , . 132,
îù8
B ib lio g r a p h y
S o u rc e s
C o n fe s s io n o f A u g sb u rg , T r a n s l a t e d b y J o i n t C om m ittee o f G e n e ra l
S y nod, L u th e ra n P u b l i c a t i o n S o c i e t y , P h i l a d i l p h i a , P e n n ,, I 913
C u r r i e , M a rg a re t A ,, e d , , L e t t e r s o f M a rtin L u th e r . The M a c m illa n
C o ,, L ondon, t 9 u8
K id d , R ev, B, J , , D ocum ents I l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e C o n ti n e n ta l R eform at o n .
C la re n d o n P r e s s , O x fo rd , î 9 l t
M e rrim a n , R oger B ig e lo w , e d , . A nnals, a f . t h e E m peror, C h a rle s , k , T r a n s -
i'à î ë â F r a n c is c o Lopez d e Gom ara, C la re n d o n P r e s s , O x fo rd , 19 1 2
T r a n s l a t i o n s an d R e p r i n ts fro m t h e O r ig in a l S o u rc e s o f E u ro p ea n H i s t o r y ,
é v o l s . U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y lv a n ia , P h i l a d e l p h i a , ld y 3
S m ith , P r e s e r v e d , L if e an d L e t t e r s o f M a r tin L u th e r , H oughton M i f f l i n
C o ., B o s to n , 19 n
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i lu
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W a lk e r, W i l l i s t o n , The R e fo rm a tio n , V o l. IX o f Ten E pochs o f C hurch
H iw to ry e d , by J o h n P u lto n , C, S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s, New Y o rk , 1922
W ard, A. W ,, "The E m p ire u n d e r F e r d in a n d I an d M a x im ilia n I I . "
C am bridge M odern H i s t o r y . 15 v o i s . P la n n e d b y L ord A c to n , E d .
b y A, W, W ard, G, W, P r o t h e r o , an d S ta n l e y Lea"ches. The Mac
m i l l a n C o ., New Y o rk , 19u5
W eber, N. A ,, "The S c h m a lk a ld ic L e a g u e ." C a th o lic E n c y c lo p e d ia ,
S p e c i a l e d . , 15 v o i s , E d . H erb erraan n , C h a rle s G eo rg e.
E n c y c lo p e d ia P r e s s , I n c , , New Y o rk , 1915
W ils o n , G e o rg e , P h i l i p M e la n c h th o n 1 4 9 7 -1 5 6 0 . R e lig io u s T r a c t
S o c i e t y , L ondon, 1B97
Z e n o s, A ndrew C ,, A Compendium o f C hurch H i s t o r y . P r e s b y t e r i a n
B o ard o f P u b l i c a t i o n a n d S a b b a th -S c h o o l W ork, P h i l . , P a . , 19^7
Zimmerman, W illia m , P o p u la r H is to r y o f G erm any. 4 v o i s , T r . b y
Hugh C r a ig . H enry J , J o h n s o n , New Y o rk , 1877
113
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1332
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1336
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C o n s t i t u t i o n o f tî ie S c h m a lk a ld ic League F e b r u a r y 2 7 , 1331
"We, J o h n , b y t h e g r a c e o f C od, A rc h m a rsh a l a n d E l e c t o r o f t h e
H o ly Roman B u p ire an d J o h n F r e d e r i c k , f a t h e r a n d s o n , D ukes o f S ax
o n y , e t c , , P h i l i p , O tto , an d t h e b r o t h e r s E m e s t t a n d F r a n c is a l l
Dukes o f B ru n sw ic k a n d L u n e b e rg ; P h i l i p , L a n d g ra v e o f H e s s e , e t c . ,
Y /o lfg an g , P r in c e o f A n h a lt, e t c . ; t h e b r o t h e r s C e b h a rd and A l b e r t ,
C ounts o f l î a n s f i e l d ; an d t h e B u rg o m a ste r a n d C o u n c il o f t h e u n d e r
m e n tio n e d c i t i e s o f U p p er G erm any, S ax o n y , a n d t h e S e a , v i z : S t r a s s
b u r g , Ulm , C o n s ta n c e , R e u tlin g e n , Memmingen L in d a u , B ib e r a c h , I s n y ,
L u b ech , M agdeburg a n d B rem en, do a l l men to \ w it
• ’W hereas i t i s a l t o g e t h e r l i k e l y t h a t th o s e who h a v e t h e p u r e
w ord o f God p r e a c h e d i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r y , an d th e r e b y h a v e a b o l is h e d
many a b u s e s , a r e t o b e p r e v e n te d by f o r c e fro m c o n tilïd illg t h i s
s e r v i c e so p l e a s i n g t o God.
’’A nd, w h e re a s i t i s t h e d u ty o f e v e r y C h r i s t i a n g o v ern m en t
n o t o n ly t o h a v e t h e w ord o f God p re a c h e d t o i t s s u b j e c t s b u t a l s o ,
a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e t o p r e v e n t t h e i r b e in g c o m p e lle d t o f a l l aw ay fro m
i t ;
"How w e, s o l e l y f o r t h e s a k e o f o u r own d e f e n s e a n d d e l i v e r a n c e ,
w h ich b o th b y human an d d i v i n e r i g h t i s p e r m i t t e d t o e v e r y o n e , h a v e
a g r e e d t h a t v d ien ev er a n y one o f u s i s a t t a c k e d on a c c o u n t o f t h e Word
o f God an d t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e G o s p e l, o r a n y th in g c o n n e c te d t h e r e w i t h ,
a l l t h e o th e r s s h a l l im m e d ia te ly come t o h i s a s s i s t a n c e , a s b e s t th e y
!!
c a n a n d h e lp t o d e l i v e r h im . —
1
Kidd, Documents I llu s t r a t iv e o f th e C ontinental Reform ation, 3^ 1*
î 19
t
C o n s t i t u t i o n o f tW L eague o f S c h m a lk a ld i n
i t , J o h n F r e d e r i c k , e l e c t o r o f S a x o n y , w ith h i s b r o t h e r
E r n e s t ; P h i l i p , E r n e s t , F r a n c i s , D ukes o f B ru n sw ic k , T J lr ic , Duke o f
W u rtem b erg , P h i l i p , L an d g ra v e o f H e s s e , DukeS o f P o m em , f o u r b r o t h e r s ,
p r i n c e s o f A n h a lt, tw o b r o t h e r s , c o u n ts o f M a n s f ie ld ; t h e d e p u t ie s
o f 21 f r e e c i t i e s . A ll t h e s e d id on b e h a l f on th e m s e lv e s a n d t h e i r
h e i r s , s e e in g t h e d a n g e rs o f t h a t ti m e , an d t h a t many w en t a b o u t
t o d i s t u r b th o s e who s u f f e r e d t h e s i n c e r e d o c t r i n e o f t h e g o s p e l t o
b e p r e a c h e d i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s ; a n d who a b o l i s h i n g a l l a b u s e s ,
s e t t l e d s u c h c e re m o n ie s a s w ere a g r e e a b le t o t h e Word o f God, fro m
t h e i r e n em ies s t u d i e d t o d i v e r t them b y f o r c e an d v i o l e n c e . And
s i n c e i t was t h e m a g i s t r a t e 's d u ty t o s u f f e r t h e s i n c e r e w ord o f
God t o b e p re a c h e d t o h i s s u b j e c t s , a n d t o p r o v id e t h a t th e y b e n o t
v i o l e n t l y d e p r iv e d o f i t ; t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e y m ig h t p r o v id e f o r t h e
d e f e n s e o f th e m s e lv e s a n d t h e i r p e o p l e , w h ich i s p e r m i tt e d t o e v e r y
m an, n o t o n ly b j t h e la w o f n a t u r e , b u t a l s o b y t h e w r i t t e n la w s ,
th e y e n t e r e d i n t o a C h r i s t i a n , l« ,w fu l, an d f r i e n d l y L ea g u e; b y W iich
t h e y fo u n d th e m s e lv e s t o f a v o r a l l o f t h e i r b o d y , an d t o w arn th em
o f a n y im m inent d a n g e r , an d n o t t o g iv e t h e i r en em ies p a s s a g e th r o u g h
t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s . T h is w as o n ly f o r t h e i r own d e f e n s e an d n o t t o
move a n y w a r. So i f a n y o f th em s h o u ld b e v i o l e n t l y a s s a u l t e d f o r
t h e c a u s e o f r e l i g i o n , o r on a n y p r e t e n s e , i n w h ich t h e r e s t s h o u ld
ju d g e t h a t r e l i g i o n was t h e t r u e m o tiv e , t h e r e s t o f t h e c o n f e d e ra c y
1
Burnet, H istory o f th e Reformation oi tn e Church o f England. I l l , 1?0,
120
w ère b o u n d , w ith, a l l t h e i r f o r c e a n d pow er t o d e fe n d him Wio was
so a d ju d g e d ; a n d none o f th em m ig h t make a n y a g re e m e n t o r t r u c e
w ith o u t t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e r e s t , an d t h a t i t m ig h t n o t b e u n d e r
s to o d t h a t t h i s w as a n y p r e j u d i c e t o th e E m p ero r, t h e i r L o rd , o r
t o a n y p a r t o f t h e E m p ire , th e y d e c l a r e , t h a t i t was o n ly in te n d e d
t o w ith s ta n d w ro n g fu l v i o l e n c e . They a l s o r e s o lv e d t o r e c e i v e a l l
i n t o t h e c o n fe d e ra c y who r e c e iv e d th e AugSbUrg C o n f e s s io n , an d
d e s i r e d t o b e j o i n e d t o i t s And w h e re a s t h e c o n f e d e ra c y m ade
s i x y e a r s b e f o r e , was t o d e te rm in e on t h e Sunday I n v o c a v it o f th e
f o llo w in g y e a r ; i n w h ich t h e p r i n c e s o f W irte ra b e rg , P om ern, an d
A n h a lt, a n d s i x o f t h e c i t i e s w ere n o t co m p re h en d ed ; th e y r e c e iv e d
th em i n t o t h i s c o n f e d e r a c y ; w h ich vfas t o l a s t f o r t e n y e a r s a f t e r
t h e S unday I n v o c a v it ; a n d i f a n y w ar sh o u x d b e b e g u n , b u t n o t
f i n i s h e d w i t h i n t h e s e t e n y e a r s , y e t i t s h a l l b e c o n tin u e d t i l l
t h e w ar i s b ro u g h t t o a n e n d ; b u t a t th e e n d o f t h e t e n y e a r s i t s h a l l
b e la w f u l t o t h e c o n f e d e r a te s t o p r o lo n g i t f u r t h e r . And t n e y g av e
t h e i r f a i t h t o one a n o t h e r , t o o b s e rv e t h i s r e l i g i o u s l y , a n d s e t
t h e i r s e a l s t o i t , ”
121
E x t r a c t s fro m t h e
1
P e a c e o f A u g sb u rg , S ep te m b er 2 5 ,
” 2 ^ , 19. I n o r d e r t o b r i n g p e a c e i n t o t h e h o ly E m pire o f
t h e G erm anic n a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e Roman I m p e r i a l m a je s ty a n d t h e
E l e c t o r s , P r i n c e s , a n d E s t a t e s , l e t n e i t h e r h i s I m p e r ia l M a je s ty
n o r t h e E l e c t o r s , P r i n c e s , e t c . , do an y v i o l e n c e o r harm t o ^ a y
e s t a t e o f t h e E m p ire o n a c c o u n t o f t h e A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n ; b u t ,
l e t th em e n jo y t h e i r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f , l i t u r g e , a n d c e re m o n ie s
a s w e ll a s t h e i r e s t a t e s a n d o t h e r r i g h t s a n d p r i v i l e g e s o f p e a c e ;
a n d c o m p le te r e l i g i o u s p e a c e s h a l l b e o b ta in e d o n ly by C h r i s t i a n
m eans o f a m ity , o r u n d e r t h r e a t o f th e p u n ish m e n t o f t h e I m p e r ia l
b a n .
” 1 P . 16. L ik e w is e t h e E s t a t e s e s p o u s in g t h e A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n
s h a l l l e t t a l l t h e E s t a t e s a n d P r in c e s vho c l i n g t o t h e o l d r e l i g i o n
l i v e i n a b s o l u t e p e a c e , an d i n t h e en jo y m en t o f a l l t h e i r e s t a t e s ,
r i g h t s , a n d p r i v i l e g e s .
" I P . 17. H ov/ever, a l l su c h a s do n o t b e lo n g t o t h e tw o above
m e n tio n e d r e l i g i o n s s h a l l n o t b e in c lu d e d i n t h e p r e s e n t p e a c e b u t
b e t o t a l l y e x c lu d e d fro m i t .
” 1P , 18. A nd, s i n c e i t h a s p ro v e d t o b e a m a t t e r o f g r e a t
d i s p u t e w hat was t o h a p p e n w ith t h e b i s h o p r i c s , p r i o r i e s , a n d o t h e r
e c c l e s i a s t i c a l b e n e f i c e s o f s u c h c a t h o l i c p r i e s t s a s w o u ld i n t h e
t
Kidd, Documents I llu s t r a t iv e o f th e C ontinental Reform ation. >6^.
122
c o u r s e o f tim e ab an d o n t h e o l d r e l i g i o n , we h a v e i n v i r t u e o f t h e
p o w e rs o f t h e R om an-B nperors o r d a in e d a s f o llo w s Vi/here a n a r c h
b is h o p , b is h o p , o r p r e l a t e o r an y o t h e r p r i e s t o f o u r o ld r e l i g i o n
s h a l l ab an d o n t h e same h i s a r c h b i s h o p r i c , b i s h o p r i c , p r e l a c y , an d
o t h e r b e n e f i c e s , t o - g e t h e r , w ith a l l t h e i r incom e an d re v e n u e s w h ic h
h e h a s so f a r p o s s e s s e d , s h a l l b e ab an d o n e d b y him w ith o u t a n y
f u r t h e r o b j e c t i o n o r d e l a y . The c h a p t e r s an d s u c h a s a r e e n t i t l e d
t o i t b y common la w o r t h e c u sto m s o f t h e p l a c e s h a l l e l e c t a p e r s o n
e s p o u s in g t h e o ld r e l i g i o n who may e n t e r on t h e p o s s e s s io n a n d e n jo y
m ent o f a l l t h e r i g h t s a n d incom es o f t h e p l a c e w ith o u t a n y f u r t h e r
h in d r a n c e an d w ith o u t p r e ju d g i n g a n y u l t i m a t e a m ic a b le s e t t l e m e n t
-
o f r e l i g i o n ,
••IP, 19, Some o f t h e a b b e y s , m o n a s t e r i e s , a n d o t h e r e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
e s t a t e s h a v in g b e e n c o n f i s c a t e d a n d tu r n e d i n t o c h u r c h e s , s c h o o l s ,
a n d c h a r i t a b l e i n s t i t u t i o n s , i t i s h e r e w ith o r d a in e d t h a t su c h e s t a t e s
a s t h e i r o r i g i n a l ow ners h a d n o t p o s s e s s e d a t t h e tim e o f t h e t r e a t y
o f P a s s a u s h a l l b e c o m p ris e d i n t h e p r e s e n t t r e a t y o f p e a c e ,
" I P . 2 v . The e c c l e s i a s t i c a l j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t h e A u g sb u rg
C o n f e s s io n , d o c t r i n e , a p p o in tm e n t o f m i n i s t e r s , c h u rc h u s a g e , o r d e r s ,
an d c e re m o n ie s h i t h e r t o p r a c t i c e d b u t a p a r t fro m a l l t h e r i g h t s o f
t h e E l e c t o r s , P r i n c e s , an d E s t a t e s , c o l l e g e s , an d m o n a steries..^ t o
t a x e s i n m oney, o r t i t h e s , s h a l l fro m now c e a s e , a n d t h e A u g sb u rg
C o n fe s s io n s h a l l b e l e f t t o t h e f r e e a n d u n tra m m e lle d ô n jo y m en t o f
t h e i r r e l i g i o n , c e re m o n ie s , a p jjo in tm e n t o f m i n i s t e r s , a s i s s t a t e d i n
12)
a s u b s e q u e n t s e p a r a t e a r t i c l e , u n t i l t h e f i n a l s e t t l e m e n t o f r e l i g i o n
s h a l l t a k e p l a c e , ------------------------------------------
” 1P , 2 ) , No e s t a t e s h a l l t r y t o p e r s u a d e t h e s u b j e c t s o f o t h e r
e s t a t e s t o ab an d o n t h e i r r e l i g i o n n o r p r o t e c t them a g a i n s t t h e i r own
m a g i s t r a t e s . Such a s h a d from o ld e n tim e s t h e r i g h t s o f p a tr o n a g e
a r e n o t in c lu d e d i n t h e p r e s e n t a r t i c l e ,
" I P , 2 4 , I n c a s e o u r s u b j e c t s , w h e th e r b e lo n g in g t o t h e o ld
r e l i g i o n o r t h e A u g sb u rg C o n fe s s io n , s h o u ld i n t e n d l e a v in g t h e i r
hom es, w ith t h e i r v /iv e s an d c h i l d r e n i n o r d e r t o s e t t l e i n a n o th e r
p l a c e , th e y s h a l l n e i t h e r b e h in d e r e d i n t h e s a l e o f t h e i r e s t a t e s
a f t e r due paym ent o f t h e l o c a l ta x e s n o r i n j u r e d i n t h e i r h o n o u r ,”

Asset Metadata

Creator Faggetter, Constance (author)

Core Title The influence of the League of Schmalkald on the Protestant Reformation

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Master of Arts

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,philosophy, religion and theology

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c39-293192

Unique identifier UC11317442

Identifier EP67430.pdf (filename),usctheses-c39-293192 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP67430.pdf

Dmrecord 293192

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Faggetter, Constance

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA