An historical study of the Augsburg Confession as an influence on the creeds of certain Protestant churches

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Content c/
'Ab-
HISTORICAL STUDY 01" THE AUG-SBURCz CONFESSION
AS AN INFLUENCE ON THE
CREEDS OF CERTAIN PROTESTANT CHURCHES
A Thesis
Presented to the Department of History
University of Southern California
In partial fulfillment
of the.
Requirements for the
Degree of Master of Arts
By
Mabel Elizabeth Lockman
June 1925
UMI Number: EP67420
All rights reserved
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O is s g fta tio n R jb iish n g
UMI EP67420
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special Faculty Committee, is accepted by the
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in partial fu lfillm e n t of the requirements
fo r the degree of Master .Q.f.4î*ts.........
Secretary
Date.
Dean
June, 1925
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction................................ 1
Chapter I. The early creeds..................4
The Aposties' Creed............5
Nicene and Ghalcedon Creeds.... 8
Influence of Augustine........ 10
Chapter II. The Augsburg Confession......... 17
Content of the Confession..... 2o
Contributions of Luther....... 23
Chapter III. The Second Helvetic Confession..26
Work and Influence of Zwingli..2?
Calvin's system of theology....31
Comparison with Augsburg Creed.36
Chapter IV. The Protestant Episcopal Creed...39
Preparation of the Thirteen
Articles..45
The Forty-two Articles........ 46
, The Thirty-nine Articles...... 49
Comparison with Augsburg Creed*51
Chapter V. The Methodist Episcopal Creed 55
Work and Influence of Wesley...56
George Whltefleld............. 59
The Twenty-five Articles...... 63
Influence of Augsburg
Confession..... 67
Chapter VI. The Presbyterîan Creeds ' ........73
Work and Influence of John
Knox in Scotland........ 75
The Scotch Confession........... 78
The Westminster Confession*..... 87
Comparison with, the Augs
burg Confession..... 01
Chapter ŸII. The Congregationalist and
Baptist Creeds............... 04
Conclusion............................... 08
Introduction*
Creeds as standards of belief, possessed of Im
mense historic and religious value, have continued to
be cherished possessions of many of the different
Protestant Churches. Their significance as a body of
Christian teaching and as a symbol hallowed by cen
turies of tradition and devotion remains unimpaired.
The Christian world in general is practically agreed
that the Church is not founded on symbols, but on
Christ, and the Bible has a divine- and absolute au
thority. But creeds have embodied Man’s answers tOj
acceptance of, and interpretation of God’s word, and
as such have ecclesiastical and-relative authority#
The various Confessions or Creeds can be shown
to bring out a truly historical development. They,
have, through the whole history of the Christian
Church, from time to time assumed more definite
shape through the progress of Biblical and theologi
cal knowledge#
Most of these creeds have been developed from,
theological disputes# This is especially true of the
Confessions which resulted from the Protestant Ref
ormation. This great controversial period witnessed
the formation of the many Evangelical Protestant-
Creeds which, with modifications and slight changes.
3
have survived to the present day, brought forward
in the symbolical books of the Protestant Churches
of Europe and America. The values of these creeds,
are many but this discussion is more or less limit
ed to one, that of their historic significance,be
cause in it is contained the formal expression of
the religious leaders and teachers of the differ
ent periods. Each Confession shows traces of the
historical situation which occasioned its forma
tion. Some of the Confessions were the work-of a
synod of a particular Church, as for example, that
of the Westminster Assembly and of the Council of
Trent; others have come down from committees of
divines conferring for the particular duty of
forming creeds, such as the Thirty-nine Articles
and the Lutheran Form of Concord, Still others
were almost exact expression of certain individ
ual leaders, such as the Augsburg Apology by
Melanchthon and the Catechisms of Luther. The
early object of creeds, that of distinguishing
Christianity from heathenism, was more or less
lost sight of in the Reformation period where the
struggle resulted in drawing, the lines of denom
inations* Proceeding with this discussion, never
theless, it will be noted that there was close a
greement between all the Evangelical creeds, for all
had the same general purpose; namely, that of attack
ing the existing, abuses of the Catholic system., and
more important still, to definitely set forth the
tenets of the Protestant Faiths.
The Early Creeds.
By 'attempting to compare the various Protest
ant Creeds, it seems advisa.hle to make a rather
hasty review of the history of Christian theology
as developed in doctrines. There was at first no
prescribed formula of faith binding upon the early
Christian believers, or in other words there was not
any one creed set down as such. In the course of
time, however, summaries of rules of faith included
the essentials of catechetical instruction and con
fession. In each case, these rules were equivalent
to a symbol, and as. such became a sign of differen
tiation between Christians and unbelievers, thus
becoming the basis of creeds. The early baptismal
formula, given by the Apostles, became the kernel
of the Apostolic Creed, which, we must keep in mind
received its.name from the ceremony, rather than
from the actual teachings accompanlng the Apostles'
work. Of all the early creeds thus developing, the
oldest one preserved was the Roman Symbol which is
another term for the Apostles' Creed, It was supposed
to have been used in Rome as early as the middle of the
second century. Its general use and recognition, howeva^
do not date before the fourth century, while its pre-
ent text cannot be found to extend further back
1
than the close of the fifth century* Thus, although
the finishing process required considerable time,
the essence of the creed belongs purely to the
Apostolic Age. This Apostolic Creed was more than
just typical of the creed formation as it here has
been used; because it gathered up in its develop
ment so many of the tenets of early Christianity,
it has been called the Creeds of Greeds, and througi
it, one can see how Articles of Faith were formed
as well as view a vast amount of their content.
This Creed was very distinct concerning the essen
tial doctrines of Christianity, It taught the doc
trines of the existence of God as Father, Son, and
Holy Ghost; of the incarnation of the Son; of His
atoning death; oi His mediatorial power and king
dom; 01 resurrection; and oi the final judgment. It
was very brief and simple, but very comprehensive,
and as such was well adapted to catechetical and
liturgical uses. It was a common bond between all
branches of orthodox Christianity.
It may be cited as a dharacteristic feature of
this period of Christian doctrine formation.
1
Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom,I,p.,19♦
6
that the whole system of Christianity, or the
many sets of rules and ceremonies, as a religious
and moral fact, was considered and defended on all
sides, rather than any few particular parts of
Christian doctrine such as any one of the tenets
of the Apostles' Creed. Certain doctrines, how
ever, received greater attention than others. Prom
inence was given to the doctrine of human freedom#
The care of God, extended to all individuals, was
recogniaed by all teachers# The appointment to re
wards and punishments in the future as based on
the divine foreknowledge of free and responsible
actions was another tenet. There were numerous al
lusions to the doctrine of free forgiveness of
sins through the grace of God. There was little
discussion relative to the divine and human natures
in Christ.. The Lord’s Supper was still connected
with the Love-Feast; the bread and wine were gifts
of Christian believers for this sacred use, and in
connection with prayers, were styled an. offering,
but this was practically their only significance.
The Baptism denoted the remission of sins and the
purifying grace of the Spirit, and was considered
essential to salvation. It was administered by the
clergy.
There Is no doubt that the Apostles and Fathers
founding the basis of creeds did a great work in
purifying the minds of believers of gross material
istic associations connected, with the Deity, which
had accrued from the paganism of the times. Exam
ple. of foreign Influence may be noticed in the Chris
tian development of the Logos doctrine of John* It
has been traced almost minutely to show that John
accepted his theory of the Logos from the early
Greek Fathers of Alexandria, who in their Platonic
philosophy, had conceived the divine nature, and dig
nity of Christ before his incarnation as included in
their dogma of the Logos. Paul, in incorporating so
much of the Mystics* religion into his Christian
'standards, was not lowering those standards to ac
commodate them to the philosophy of the age, but
rather was imbibing that atmosphere, and thereby
growing strong in faith and mighty in spiritual
stature, as he worshiped and served his crucified
and risen Redeemer in the language, and under the
inspiration furnished by the world, of his. own im
mediate experience#
In tracing the development of creeds in the
early Christian history, the period of the Oecumen-
îcal councils (300-600) is found to have made con
siderable contribution* In this period, there were
great controversies on points of Christian doctrine,
which greatly agitated the Church, Many subtle, de
basing influences had found entrance into the Chris
tian: ceremonies and beliefs. Great ecclesiastical
assemblies were held to settle disputes arising over
them, and for defining ecclesiastical opinions re
garding them* These councils were held in the East,
which'was the controlling religious and political
center»
As a result of the Arian controversy, relating
to the divinity of Christ and the Trinity, and the
Christological controversy, which had to do with the
two natures of Christ, two important creeds were
formulated, the Nicene and the Ghalcedon» The Nicene
Creed was primarily the confession read and finally
accepted at the council of Nicaea, In its original
form, it is somewhat abrupt, since the council's
only concern was that of establishing the doctrine
of the true deity of the Son# The later council of
Constantinople enlarged the original Nicene creed,
expanding on the article concerning the Holy Ghost#
This Nicene Creed stands out preeminently in its
enlarged form, as the only symbol of doctrine which.
9
with the exception of the subsequently added "f111-
oque',' is acknowledged alike by Greek, Latin, and ,
Evangelical Churches# It thus stands in its own age
in very much the same position to creed development,
both in form and content-, as does the Apostolic
Creed to the earlier period.
The Ghalcedon symbol affirmed two natures in
one person, united without division or separation,
and thus made "the Son consubstantlal with the Fa
ther as to His Godhead, and consubstantial with us
as to His humanity*» It also took up the Marian dis
pute, decreeing that Christ was the Son of Mary,
the Mother of God, The Chalcedonian dogma was the
apex of the Christological speculations of the ear
ly Church, It excluded every kind of mixture of the
two natures which would result in a being which is
neither divine nor human* This Ghalcedon symbol
contained the purely orthodox tenets adopted by the
Eastern Church# But the controversies were not
closed and their continuation extended a weakening
influence on the Church, and has been judged to be
an Important element in facilitating the later Mo
hammedan conquest, in that the Eastern Church was
so much a part of the political life of the Empire,
I
Fisher, History of Christian Doctrine.o»155.
10
St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, belongs to
the Oecumenical age# His "Confessions" are an auto
biography in which the story of his sins and spirit
ual struggles are so faithfully and frankly told?
He stands out as a teacher, preacher, and writer of
incessant activity; He wrote on themes of philoso
phy and on topics of dogmatic theology, and thus
holds a place in the history of creed and dogma.
His intellect was clear, acute, and given to spec
ulation, yet on fire with emotion# The writings of
Augustine show two discordant veins of thought# In
one is found the regular established Catholic eccle-
siasticism and the basis of most of the doctrinal
statements complying with that system# On the other
hand, in the second vein of thought, there is much
evidence of the great Church "spiritual and Invisi-
2
ble" composed of the saints elect. This latter is
included in the ecclesiastical system; but the occa
sion for election, he fails to'attempt to explain#
This is noted because Calvin, who used Augustine as
his primary authority, endeavored to explain the
doctrine of election#
Before Augustine, the anthropology of Church,
doctrine was very crude and indefinite; there was
perhaps a general agreement as to the apostasy and
1
Fisher, History of Christian Doctrine.p.. 192.
11
moral accountability of man, as to the curse of
sin, and as to the necessity for redeeming grace,
but the agreement did not extend to the relation
of human freedom to divine grace. The Pelagian
controversy, launched by St.Augustine, turned up
on the antithesis of sin and grace. It included
the whole cycle of doctrines; human freedom, the
primitive state, the fall, regeneration and con
version, eternal purpose of redemption, and the.
nature and operation of the grace of God. Augus
tine sounded the depths of knowledge and experi
ence, and yet he carried all off into the realms
of mystery. His extraordinary Influence extended
do’ vn into the mediaeval centuries, and with the
onrush of the Reformation, his doctrinal views
were minutely examined by such leaders as Calvin
and Luther, as before noted*
During the mediaeval age, we find that in the
Latin Church there was a certain place given to
the Athanasian Creed. During that age, it had be
come firmly fixed as a part of the daily morning;
devotlonals# The origin of this creed is obscure.
From the ninth to the seventeenth centuries, the
authorship was attributed to Athanasius* But due
to the omission of this symbol in the genuine
13
writings of Athanasius, and to the lack of allusions
to it in the general synods of Constantinople, Ephe
sus, and Ghalcedon, and to the unassuming early ap
pearance of it in the Latin Churches of Gaul, North
Africa, and Spain, it is now conceded to have come
into definite form in the eighth or ninth centuries.
It is sometimes called the Symbolum Quicunque» It
gives a clear summary of the doctrinal decisions of
the first four oecumenical councils and the Augustla-
ian speculations on the Trinity and the. Incarnation#
It consists of two parts, The first section sets
forth the orthodox doctrines of the Holy Trinity,
and in this connection may be judged purely Augustin-
ian# It ascribed to each person of the Trinity, all
the divine attributes, but allows for each a charac
teristic individuality. The second part contains a
succinct statement of the orthodox doctrine of the
person of Christ as settled by the later councils,
and as such is a valuable supplement to the Apostles’
and Nicene Creeds* The Damnatory clauses give sol
emn declaration of the Catholic faith, denying sal
vation to whomever may reject the logical statement
of doctrine. This symbol was formally adopted by
the Lutheran and several other Reformed Churches,
and is approvingly mentioned in the Augsburg Gon4
13
fesstori!, in the Thirty-nine Articles, and in the
Second Helvetic Confession*
The latter part of the mediaeval age, which
witnessed the supremacy of the papacy, brought .
forth scholastic theology which, in its extensive
development, dealt a blow to papal power and also
furnished the seeds for the Protestant Reformation»
Anselm may be called the father of scholasticism.
"In him the two elements, the devout and mystical
on the one hand, and the scientific and^specula-
tive on the other, are evenly balanced" His writ
ings on original sin and on the Trinity are of re
markable merit, but the most celebrated of his
works are the two short treatises unfolding his
demonstration of the being of God, and a third
smaller work, on the Atonement* His attempted
demonstration of theism^ is very similar to Augus
tine-s reasoning,"That sin pertains exclusively
to the rational will';’ a proposition which Anselm
clearly defines and maintains, and on which sub
ject, he gives to the Augustiniani theology, a pre-
2 '
cision which it had not previously attained*
Another great teacher to extend a vast influ
ence upon the times was Abelard* He was a restless
and adventurous thinker. No problem was so diffi
1
Fisher, History of Christian- Doctrine.p,816.
2
T'K'î n 910
14
cult that he despaired of solving it, no mystery in
his esteem was too sacred to be probed# In approval
of him, it may be brought out that his purpose was
to stimulate Inquiry by showing that there was no
uniform teaching to rest upon. He lacked the balance
between devotional and theological elements, seen in
Anselm, for in him the inquisitive spirit and the
dialectic passion had the ascendancy. The specula
tive spirit which he furthered, rather than any doc
trines as such, produced the greatest Influence on
his age. Abelard stands out as a champion of ethics
which he attempted to bring within the domain of
theology.
Toward the close of the thirteenth century,
when scholasticism had reached its height, schools
had developed, supporting different views in con
nection with the prevalent controversies. Division
broke out between the different schools, which con
tinued to exist as long as the system itself. In
this period Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican, stands
out preeminently. In him, again, we find the true
balance between philosophy and theology, typical
of Anselm. Dr. Fisher, in his "History of Christian
Doctrine" has termed Thomas Aquinas the most pro
found and luminous of the Scholastic writers* His
famous literary production "Summa Theologiae" cov-
15
ers the field of both Ethics and Theology. The
first part of his "Summa Theologiae" treats of God,
including his nature, relation to the world, and
the Trinity; the second, deals with Man, where are
discussed Sin, Law, and Virtues; finally, the third
part takes up the Person and Work of Christ and the
Sacraments# Closely following after Aquinas, came
John Duns Scotus. He marked the turning point in
scholasticism by furnishing that differentiating
process which tended to separate so completely,
philosophy and religion* As to his type of theolo
gy, Scotus was at variance with Aquinas and being
a Franciscan, represented a different school* Sco
tus was a sincere Christian, and produced writings
which extended vast influences in following gen
erations, in undermining scholasticism# His phil
osophy extended back to Platonic Realism., and his
theology, in many respects, resembled Semi-Pelag-
ianism# Thus,it can readily be seen that the ten
dencies of Aquinas and Scotus conflicted# The
chief point of difference between these two great
leaders was on the question of the relation of
grace to the human will * Aquinas following chief
ly the Augustinian doctrines, while Scotus.- leaned
toward Pelagianism#
16
Although, the mediaeval period is. usually de
signated as the dark ages, it is readily seen that
there was great activity of conscience. The spirits
ual and Intellectual revivals played important roles
in lifting the multitudes from a religion predomin
antly symbolical in expression. The works produced
in that age, which included the thought of such
deeply spiritual men as Anselm and Aquinas, were
destined to Influence all Christendom, and to bear
fruits in the later religious awakening that stir
red to the depths all Europe#
1?
The Augsburg Confession*
Turning to the period of the Reformation, no at
tempt will be made to go into the causes of the great
religious awakening of that time; attention will be
given only to doctrinal development* Luther's attack
upon the theory of indulgences shook the scholastic
doctrinal system to its very foundations* Starting
with this attack, opposition to all that seemed un-
scriptural in the constitution of the Church spread
at an appalling rate* Up until this period, the Pap
acy had no complete scheme of systematic theology, ex
pounding the doctrines held by the 'Church, and to
which it might turn to defend itself against attack^
There is every reason to believe that Luther had no
more intention, than the old Church Fathers, of per
fecting a system of doctrine. But out of the chaos
of the Reformation, gradually there were evolved scien
tific forms of statement. Catholic and Protestant
alike*
The occasion for the writing of the Augsburg
Confession may be traced back to two causes* The
outward cause, a more or less political one, was the
command of the; Emperor Charles V, that the Luther-
18
an Princes present at the Diet of Augsburg (l53o) an
explicit statement of their faith# The Catholic Em-
peror's chief concern was to establish a settlement
between the conflicting parties in Germany, His
motive was undoubtedly two-fold; he wanted Germany
as a compact nation to assist him in his wars against
the Turks* and having been reconciled with the Pope,
he desired to improve the relation between them by
aiding in the suppression of the spreading tendencies
of Protestantism. The deeper cause, however, which
produced this Confession, can be distinguished in
the inner necessity and Impulse to confess, and form
ulate the evangelical faith» It may be represented
as the ripening of the fruit of many preceding years.
Upon the Emperor's demand for a Confession to be
prepared -Ithin four days, no time was lost by Melanch-
thoh to whom the task was entrusted* Melanchthon
was greatly aided by the Saxon Elector, who had the
Wittenberg, theologians draw up some articles which
were to be used for reference and refutation at the
Diet, Tith these articles for a basis, together with
a preface and epilogue separately prepared by Dr*
BrÜck, Melanchthon most zealously accomplished with
in the alioted time, the formation of the Confession,
19
Every moment that could be found at Augsburg had
been devoted to writing, rewriting, and Improving
every sentence. The language used was as near as
pos'sible to that of the old Church, Although no
credit is usually ascribed to Luther, there is no
doubt that the document contains all Luther’s ideas
which were revised and elaborated by Melanchthon,
Thus Luther is regarded as the primary source of
this piece of work,and Melanchthon, the secondary.
The content is purely Luther's; the style, method,
and form is Melanchthon's«
On the twenty-fifth day of June, a monumental
■day in the history of Lutheranism, the Augsburg
Confession was read by Dr, Bayer, the Vice Chancel
lor of Saxony, in the German language, and.before
the diet in a private chapel of the Episcopal pal
ace, The reading occupied nearly two hours. The Em
peror who knew little German and less theology soon
fell asleep, but the majority listened attentively.
The Papists were surprised at the moderation of the
Confession, and would have wished it more polemic
and anti-Catholic.
Dr.Brück the Saxon Chancellor handed to the
Emperor a German and a Latin copy of the Confession,
The Emperor kept the former and gave the latter to
20
the Elector of Mainz for safe-keeping# The Latin
copy was deposited in. the archives of Brussels and
disappeared during the time of the Duke of Alva.
The German original was sent with the acts of the
Diet to the Council of Trent, and was never return
ed, Melanchthon himself issued the Confession in
both languages at Wittenberg in 1531, The original
documents were signed by seven princes, including
the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave Philip of
Hesse and two of the representatives of the free
cities* The signing required considerable courage,
for it involved the displeasure of the crown.
The Confession consists of two parts» the
first part including twenty-one-articles, gives
the Lutheran Greed, as it exists to-day, and the
second part in seven sections takes up certain
abuses or reforms# It represents a statement of
opinions and grievances» The framers made it em
phatic that they belonged to the ancient and vis
ible Catholic Church and believed in all the, arti
cles of faith set forth by the universal Church#
But they were unwilling to remain in that Church
which stood unreformed,tolerating such abuses as
had crept in* The first part of the Creed express-
21
es the views held by those who signed it while the
second part states the errors against which they
were protesting#
The first part deals with a clear, calm, and
condensed statement of doctrine held by the Luther
ans# This section for convenience is divided into
four parts# First, it deals with the doctrines which
they hold in common with, the Roman Church* These in-
elude the doctrines of Cod's unity and trinity and
Christ'’s human personality# In these we find the
Catholic faiths as laid down in the oecumenical
creeds * It condemns Arianlsni as heresy # The second
part relates to those doctrines which were held in
common with the Augustinian school in that Church.
Included in these are the articles on the fall and
original sin,, slavery of the natural will and the
necessity of divine grace, and the cause and nature
of sin* Thus Pelagianism and Semi-Pelagianlsm are
condemned* In the next section is set forth those
doctrines which are anti-Roman, such as justifica
tion by faith, the gospel ministry, new obedience,
the church, repentance, ordination, ecclesiastical
rites, civil government, and worship of saints#
Justification by faith was given great prominence#
22
The last group contains distinctively Lutheran doc
trines. These are mostly retained from the prevail
ing Catholic traditions and they differed in part
from: those of other Protestant Churches. They deal
with sacraments, confession, and absolution#
Part two which deals with abuses enumerates
those abuses which have been deemed objectionable
and had been actually corrected in the Lutheran
Churches, namely the withdrawal of the communion cup
from the laity, the celibacy of the clergy, the sac
rifice of the mass, obligatory auricular confession,
ceremonials, feasts and fasts, and monastic vows*
The content of the Confession is purely apolo
getic and not polemic* It aimed to be a formula of con
cord and not one of discord. It passes by in silence
the supremacy of the scriptures as the only rule of
faith and practice. Practically no mention is made
of some of the most objectionable features in the
Roman system, such as Indulgences, Purgatory, etc.
The articles show a sound and methodical spirit and
follow as closely as possible to the Catholic doc
trines* Melanch thon did not intend to dogmatically
determine the contents and import of the scriptures;
he desired to bring the Church and scriptures into
23
unison which he interpreted as the condition which
existed where the Roman Church was founded. We are
led to believe that he had no- intention of framing
an exhaustive syllabus of theological opinions# It
is the most churchly, the most Catholic, and the
most conservative creed of Protestantism, Melanch-
thou took great pains to convey the idea that, the
Lutheran doctrine was in no way contradictory to
the scriptures, nor to the Roman Church. This.
catholicizing tendency is not the gentleness of
Melanchthon nor his desire to conciliate all par-
«
ties, but rather it is due to the fact that he was
\
at heart half Catholic#
Luther was the commanding reformer. By nature
and temperament he was austere and rugged. He spoke
with inspiration and authority and was intolerantly
insistent upon the purification of doctrine. From
the content of the Confession we see his system of
theology. Besides this great contribution of theol
ogy, he rendered great services to his age. by his
vernacular Bible, Catechism, and Hymnbook, thus
providing the Protestants their guide, for every
step of their private and public devotions.
24
The Augsburg Confession exhibits the prevail
ing genius of the German Reformation and will ever
be cherished as one of the noblest monuments of
faith serving from'the ..beginning of-Protestantism#
It is the first and most famous of evangelical con
fessions# It gives a clear, full and systematic■ex
pression to the chief articles of faith, for which
Luther and his followers had been contending for
the thirteen years following that first protest
against Indulgences* The distinctly Protestant con
ception of spiritual priesthood of all believers
Inspires the whole document* It was meant to give,
the minimum doctrines for which the Protestants
contended. By its intrinsic merits and historic
connections it has became the chief doctrinal stand
ard of the Lutheran Church to-day. It furnished the
keynote to similar public testimonies of faith and
strengthened the cause of the Reformation*
Protestantism spread beyond the borders'pf Ger
many, due to the religious spirit of the times, the
prevalent influence of the use of the printing
press, and political complications throughout all
Europe»: It was at first propagated directly from
Wittenberg. For awhile it seemed that northern
Europe would become the active seat of Protestant
25
ism* Far the definite and concrete formulation of
creeds, however, we turn our attention to the south
and notice the religious developments in Switzer
land#
26
The Second Helvetic Confession.
The beginning of the Reformation in Switzerland
centers around Zwingli. In his early pursuit of
knowledge, he first studied at the University o;f
Vienna, and then went to Basel. At this center of
humanistic culture, he acquired that love for the
classics, which led him into close study of the Greek
Testament. Zwingli was a patriot as well as a scholar
and immediately recognized the political and social
disorders involved in Switzerland's relation to the
Papacy. He realized that these disorders would color
any religious movement. He knew that bribes, pensions,
and ecclesiastical preferments were lavished on in
fluential men by the Pope who was made secure by his
use of the hardy Swiss mercenaries. It is a well
known fact that both the Pope and the French King
who were allies used the Swiss. Such conditions
had occasioned disrespect and lack of reverence
for the rulers of the church. Zwingli by his in
creasing reverence for the power and authority
of the Scriptures, became a leader of a quiet
but thorough-going religious revolution# Un
like Luther, he discarded without hesitation all
27
rites and ceremonies of the mediaeval Church which
bordered on superstitions.. In a very few years
Zurich, the cathedral Church of which Zwingli. had
charge, underwent a complete change and threw off
its allegiance to the Bishop of Constance, The
rule of celibacy was abolished and other distin
guishing features of the mediaeval Church disap*^
peared. The religious revolution was accompanied
by an elevation of the moral life of the community#
The spread of Protestantism in Switzerland became
accompanied by a downfall of oligarchy.
The striking feature of Zwingli.’è work is its
political as well as its religious reform* In this
it stands out in contrast with the reform at Gene
va# Luther never attempted any political reform:
although in sympathy with the masses and having
touched a chord of sympathy within them, he could
not and would not become their political leader.
But Zwingli conceived the two interests, politi
cal and religious, as going hand in hand# He be
lieved that lax religious conditions and misgov-
ernment were complements of each other, and that
reform should remedy both# This stand we must ad
mit was consistent with the mediaeval mind, which
28
always allied the affairs of the Church and State*
Zwingli*s four dogmatic works show the Reform
ed faith in its first stages of development. Al
though Zwingli's opinions on the sacraments, orig
inal sin, and salvation of all infants, appeared at
first rather fanatical and dangerous, this Reform
er was able to come into agreement on every article
Of faith except the real presence in the Eucharist*
The mass had acquired the most exalted place in the
dogmatic and ritual system of the Church, through
the influence of the doctrine of transubstantiatlon
which was the miraculous transformation of the bread
and wine to the body and blood of Christ* Both Lu
ther and Zwingli rejected this dogma but differed
in their idea, of a statement. Luther took an exact
stand explained through the term "C onsuhs tanti a ti on"
while Zwingli stated his opinion that the bread
1
and wine ”signifies" the body and blood. This great
difference could not be healed at the Marburg Con
ference, and as a result Protestantism became divid
ed»
The progress of the Reformation in Switzerland
was checked by the political contentions within*
Five Forest cantons still adhered to Rome and great-
1
Hagenback, History of the Reformation,I,p*365.
20
ly resented the increasing popularity of Protest
antism, They entered into a league with. Austria to
resist its progress* In the ensuing wars of Capped,
Zwingli was killed while yet in the prime of life.
He stands out preeminently as a historical-figure
in the history of Christendom., and paved the way
for Calvin's greater work *
But. the greatest figure in the Swiss Reforma
tion comes in the remarkable personage of John Cal
vin, His prominence in theological history is re
peatedly compared to Augustine, and Thomas Aquinas,
and he is judged by Dr, Schaff as being superior
to both in method and symmetry. Coming from France,
which country failed to acknowledge him as the
greatest exponent of theology, he set up a school
at Geneva which was destined to spread its vast in
fluences to all parts of the earth. At a time when
Europe had no solid results of reform to show, this
state of Geneva became a great power due to Calvin;
year by year it sent forth apostles into the world
who preached its doctrines everywhere; thus it became
the most dreaded counterpoise to Rome, The mission
aries from this small community displayed the lofty
and dauntless spirit which resulted from their
stoical education and training under Gal-
30
vin; they bore the stamp of a self-renouncing hero
ism which elsewhere tended to become absorbed into
theological narrowness. Under Calvin, Protestantism,
adopted the gospel of democracy as a part of its
creed# The brave nature of Calvin became imparted to
his followers, and the further spread of Protestant
ism was accomplished# Thus the stream of Reformed
faith accompanied by its democratic ideals found a
way through the many western countries of Europe and
marched on up through England and Scotland, thus
planting the seeds for religious and political democ
racy.
Calvin was equally great in intellect and char
acter, full of tender sympathy and faithful to friends,
yielding and forgiving toward personal offences, bi%t
inexorably severe when he saw the honor or God at
stake# His fame in both the literary and theologi
cal worlds centers around his "'Institutes# In these
he laboriously expounded his doctrines of the Chris
tian Religion# He revised this work several times,
so that by its last edition of 1559, it had grown
four or five times its original size. For conven
ience it is divided into four books# The first
deals y;ith theology proper* here the author gave
full discussions on his views of God the Creator*
31
The second heok takes in Christology, dealing with
Grod the Redeemer. The third deals with Soteriology,
the Holy Spirit and the application of the Saving
work of Christ. Finally the fourth book treats of
the means of grace; namely the Church and the Sac
raments ,
Calvin made some monumental divergences from
the already existing Protestant views. His eccle
siastical system included a very new form of Church,
polity. The following will give some idea of the
exalted position given to the Church: it was the
duty of the State to foster the interests of the
Church, to carry out its requirements, and to in
flict temporal penalties on those who disobeyed its
rules. Ecclesiastical discipline was in the hands
of the consistory, which was composed of six clergy
men and twelve laymen* It exercised a moral censor
ship over every person, in the city. The high and
the low, the rich and the poor, were held 'alike to its
inflexible laws. The preachers of the Genevan Church
were chosen with great care by the ministers already
in office, the congregation, however, having a veto
power. The Jurisdiction of the Church was gradually
extended over details of conduct, which as a matter
of fact went as far as to abridge unduly the lib
32
erty of the individual# But from Galvin's stringent
measures, gradually evolved the right of the Church
to perform its own functions without the interfer
ence of the State, and more than that, it became
the nursery of liberty and in the western European
countries the freedom that it furthered became so
popular as to penetrate into political affairs as
well*
On the question of the Eucharist, Calvin took
a midway position between Luther and Zwingli. . He
agreed with Zwingli' in the interpretation of the
word ''is" (from the Scripture) as meaning "to sig
nify" Thus he maintained that Christ is really re
ceived in the Lord's Supper, but spiritually, and
by the believer alone#
The most striking feature of Calvin's theology
is his exposition of Predestination and Election#
Calvin never, lost his reverence for the Church ; not
the Church over which the Roman hierarchy ruled,
but this new manifestation, of the Church established
after the model of the Hew Testament, which should
provide administration of Sacraments and teaching of
the Word* The individual who cuts himself off from
this community automatically withdraws from Christ.
33
Within this community Church is the Church invisible,
composed of the elect, or all true believers. His
stand on election was at first shared by the other
reformers. This, they obtained from or shared with
Augustinian theology in opposition to Pelagianism*
But Calvin especially stressed this point of pre
destination and thus that doctrine has been the
one considered most characteristic of his work# He
believed all men to be in complete bondage to sin;
that God alone can save. He declared that even the
sin of Adam was the carrying out of an efficient
decree, the effect of divine agency. On this last
idea, however, more moderate statements were found
in his later writings. He departed entirely from
Augustine and Luther in holding that the true be
liever can never fall away# The mysteries of pre-
des tination .and election he did not pretend to fa
thom, but in the greatest faith hela there were
reasons ooth wise and good far beyond man's mea
ger comprehension*
As has been already suggested in the above,
Switzerland was destined to become the seat of the
Reformed Protestants# This name is given in con
trast to the Lutherans> Builinger, a most able
34
chronicler, preserved and formulated in creeds the
works of Zwingli and Calvin* He was one of the
principal authors of the First Helvetic Confess
ion and the sole author of the Second Helvetic
Creed. These creeds are the first Reformed creeds
and decidedly Zwingliani' in character. The First
is the earliest Reformed creed that has acquired
a national authorityIt consists of twenty-seven
articles. The Second, published in 1566, is of
far the more Importance. Calvin in. his theological
system had developed definite views as the Council
of Trent had formulated the modern Roman Greed#
The Second Helvetic Confession was not Intended as
a public creed, Bullinger having attached it as
his private confession to. his will* But a copy was
requested by Frederick HI, elector of the Palatin
ate, and the Elector considered it very worthy of
publication# It is one of the most widely Contin
ental Reformed symbols# It was well received in
Holland, England, Scotland, Hungary, Poland, and
France* It is scriptural and Catholic, wise and
judicious, full and elaborate* Objection may be
taken to it as an official document, on the ground
of its great length and comprehensiveness, of de-
35
tail; but it would be difficult to conceive of a
theological manifesto more effectively loyal to
the Scriptures, or filled with more common sense.
Its appearance was a signal for the cessation of
theological controversy in Switzerland. Its doc
trinal standpoint is characteristic of the author
and his time, maintaining a position which was a
combination of the positions of Zwingli and Cal
vin, stipulating, also, an unbending attitude to
ward Rome, a courteous tone towards Lutheranism,
and firm adherence to ancient Catholic Creeds,
The symbols in the Reformed branch of the
Protestant body are much more numerous than in the
Lutheran, for the reason that the Reformed Churches
were established in so many different communities.
The Swiss theology spread rapidly, penetrating
even into Germany where the Heidelberg Catechism
was composed in the Palatinate. Other Calvin-
is tic creeds, such as the Belgic and the Dutch, the
Scotch, and the Westminster Confessions are deriv
ed directly from the Second Helvetic Confession.
It makes an interesting study to compare the Augs
burg Confession with the Second Helvetic since
these two represent the foundations of the two
36
branches of Protestantism.* That Bullinger used
the Augsburg Confession for a guide in. framing
his Helvetic Confession, is believed to be an
historical fact. In the first place the Augs
burg Confession, having been written in 1530,
was scattered very prevalently by 1566, which
date represents the publication of the Hel
vetic Creed; then in the second place, a close
study of the texts of these confessions reveals
considerable similarity in form and arrange
ment of material; third, historical facts sub
stantiate the idea that Bullinger was not at
all antagonistic to the Lutheran theology but
deemed it an excellent service to Protestant- •
ism if the Calvinistlc theology might be ex
pounded in a more gentle manner so as to make
the bridge between these two branches not too
great.
Both branches accept the ancient creeds on
the express'g'round that they can be proved by the
Scriptures. All the Reformers heard the voice of
Christ in the Holy Scriptures. Both held firmly to
37
the fundamentals of the doctrine concerning the
person and mediation of Christ, the reality and
perfection of His atonement for human sin, the
work of the Holy Spirit, the constitution of the
Christian Church, and the office of the ministry*
The divergences pertain to the Eucharist, bestow
al of grace, and attitudes concerning the rites
not expressly sanctioned by Scripture* Relative to
the Lord's Supper, the Lutheran creed states that
the veritable body and blood of Christ are sub
stantially present in and under the elements which
do not lose their substance, nor are changed in
to the body of Christ, Here the Reformed creed
states that the body and blood of Christ are partaken
of by recipients, in faith, and that the bread and
wine are signs of the substantial, not present,
body and blood of Christ# The Lutheran creed
maintains that Divine Help is offered without dis
tinction but may be rejected; whereas the Reformed
Confession has this Divine Help offered only to those
whom God has by His eternal absolute decree elected to
salvation and that this cannot be resisted by the elect*
The Lutheran creed contains a section on absolution,
which it is contended, is bestowed by the minister,
not as a judge, but as announcer of the divine will*
38
The Reformed creed makes no mention of absolution,
as no doubt it was considered to be a purely medi
aeval Innovation of the Church. The Reformed creed,
moreover, explicitly states that both penance and
purgatory are in no way prescribed in the New
Testament Church. The Lutheran expressly designates
that pictures and altars may be set up in churches,
while the Reformed creed states that pictures and
X
altars are not to be suffered. It is seen, therefore
that the differences contained in these two out
standing creeds, are very small when, considering
the whole content of both#
1
Winer, The Confessions of Christendom. The table
of Comparative Theology (pp.374-389) brings
out these differences in concise form.
The Protestant Episcopal Greed.
The history of the Reformation and the develop
ment of creeds in England is a most interesting study*
England, wl^ich was destined to become a world empire,
became the chief European stronghold of Protestantism*
1
Widif ' had given utterance to a feeling which lay
deep in the hearts and spread wide among the ranks of
thinking men. The revival of letters and the art of
printing gradually taught men how to think and how to
communicate their thoughts* The work of the early Ox-
2
ford Reformers, Erasmus, Colet, and More made lasting
impressions on the English mind. The Renaissance in
England assumed characteristics similar to those which
marked it in Germany* The Humanistic scholars went to
Italy and brought back to Oxford a zeal for the new
learning. John Colet, the son of a wealthy merchant,
early began to give lectures on the Epistles of Paul*
He boldly pushed aside the artificial methods and
voluminous comments of the schoolmen and sought in a
clear, simple language to bring before the people the
life and teachings of Jesus* He was soon joined in
his endeavors by Sir Thomas More and Erasmus* These
1
Gross, UP.cit..p.208.
2
Ibid.,pp.304-305.
40
two produced their famous "Utopta" and "The Praise
of Folly” respectively, and gave to the people
who could understand, a true picture of the bondage
in which they were held through superstition and
dogmatism; opening, thereby, a course of culture
and liberality, and a means of-simpler and purer
Christianity. Erasmus furnished his world with ex
cellent Latin translations of the Greek Testament,
and of the works of Origen, Athanasius, and Chrysos
tom. He gave, thus, to the men of his time the
sources from which they might gain, a better under
standing of the fundamental truths of Christianity,
a clearer knowledge of Christian antiquity, and a
more Biblical theology. The religious fervor and
Biblical criticism, which resulted, soon launched a
fierce struggle between the old and new learning,
which, was to last about a hundred years. Finally, an
entirely new system was evolved which showed traces
of both continental systems but could not be iden
tified with either,.
This different development characteristic of
England is explained by two leading conditions*
First, the insular independence accounted for a cor
respondingly independent spirit. The national feel
ing within the island was especially manifest. This
41
spirit evolved a political as well as an ecclesias
tical movement. Second, the Reformation in England
involved the actions of princes, bishops, rulers,
and statesmen, r-ther than a more or less exclusive
body of scholars and divines. It is true that the
higher powers dominated the course of events, but
the interest of all England, rich and poor, high
and low, good and bad, was evidenced in this Ref
ormation. Because the masses had been aroused, their
sympathy and support were deemed necessary by those
in authority and, therefore, were carefully foster
ed.
It is a striking fact that England produced
no leading genius during the Reformation, and fur
thermore, displayed less_theological depth and
originality than did Germany and Switzerland# But
the secret of its vast success lies in the fact
that England furnished a fertile soil which allow
ed a broad expanse for the new ideas# This can be
readily seen when it is remembered that the Oxford
Reformers with their Humanistic movement had cre
ated this soil, out of which came such a universal
appreciation of the new doctrines. It is also true
that out of this manifest interest of society as a
whole, evolved the spirit of civil liberty, which
1
/ Schaff, Creeds of Christendom. I,p.504,
42
element gained rebounding strength during the prog
ress of the religious Reformation*
The compelling fact that identifies England
with the Protestant Reformation is Henry’s VIII
actual break with Rome. The difficulty between Henry
and the Pope was occasioned by Henry’s desire for
a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. The merits of
the question do not concern us here in this dis
cussion,' We are chiefly concerned with the attitude
toward Rome. As far as we can conjecture, Henry was
not antagonistic to the Papacy, but was very antag
onistic toward the Pope in his orthodox stand re
garding divorce* As was consistent with his politi
cal policies, wherein he allowed no one to inter
fere with his wishes, Henry took his stand in de
fiance of the Pope* He threw off the authority Of
the Pope, by assuming all the ecclesiastical au
thority which had formerly been enjoyed by the
spiritual head. Thus by throwing off the yoke of
Rome, he had joined the forces of the Reformers,
but he had no Intention of going further into the
struggle which endeavored to correct Popery and its
1
system.
The outward result of this first move in the
English Reformation was merely a substitution of
1
Cross, op.cit,,ch.20.
43
king worship for Pope worship; a local tyranny tak
ing the place of a foreign one. But inwardly, it
showed great strides for the further progress of
Protestantism* The parliament had sanctioned Henry’s
action by its "Supremacy Act" which showed clearly
the strong national feeling supporting the monarch
This first break was soon followed up by a strong
clerical and popular attitude toward ecclesiastical
reform and independence, and thus were planted the
seeds for a fuller accomplishment under the reign
of the succeeding king#
The prevailing figure in this period was Cran-
mer. He early became identified with this movement
when made a favorite by Henry. He gained this dis
tinction as a result of his suggestions made in be
half of Henry's divorce. Cranmer was soon appointed
Archbishop of Canterbury. His character is a dis
puted question. In many cases, his policy was a weak
one in order to retain his power, yet it must be ad
mitted that he possessed many virtues such as mild
ness, moderation, and patience. It became the duty
of Cranmer to steer a course between the path of
the Catholic king, separated from. Rome, and the Re
formers anxious for a complete reaction against
Catholicism.
44
During Henry's reign several documents were
produced which, furnish material for the development
of creeds# The first doctrinal formulation In Eng-
1
land after the .rupture with Rome was the Ten Articles
of 1536. These were devised by Henry himself for the
purpose of establishing unity and concord, in relig
ious opinions, but at the same time, their aim. was
to repress and utterly extinguish all dissent# These
Articles made the Bible and the three ancient creeds
the authoritative standards of teaching# The article
on Justification rejects human merit, but connects
with this denial, an assertion, of the necessity of
works to follow Justification# In this we see an at
tempt to unite Lutherg&ism. and Roman Catholicism* It
designates a Purgatory from which the Pope cannot de
liver souls* There are elements of caution against
abuses connected with confession, invocation of saints,
and image worship# The Lutheran tendencies were put
in by Cranmer who referred constantly to Melanch
thon 's Apology. This creed fell into disuse when in
1537 "The Institution of a Christian Man" was pub
lished. It was to a large extent an expansion of
Luther's catechism and its whole content was decid
edly more Lutheran than the Ten Articles#
1
Dr* Schaff, in his Greeds of Christendom, gives
the best material available on all
these different sets of Articles.
45
Due mostly to political reasons, Henry was de
sirous of maintaining friendly relations with the
German authorities# A Lutheran emhassy came to Lon
don to confer with an English committee of bishops
and doctors. This conference assembled several times
between the years 1535-38 and the Thirteen Articles
were drawn up in Latin at London* They were derived
!
purely from the Augsburg Confession, and in many
cases the exact language of that Confession was a-
dopted. The king, however, never sanctioned this doc
ument and its use as a popular creed was not extend
ed, The only significance of this creed lies in the
fact that it became the chief source of the later
Forty-two Articles* The Catholic reaction, which set
in, produced the Six Articles* These were devised
for positive abolition of diversity of opinions and
bore down severly upon the views of the Anabaptists
^ and all radical Protestants, These Articles were pro
duced under the influence of Gardiner and were opposed
strenuously by Cranmer. They Imposed on all England
many obnoxious features of Romanism* Whoever denied
transubstantiation was to be punished by death; dis
senters antagonistic to all other articles were to
be punished by very stringent measures.
46
Upon the accession of ^ward VI, who was him
self a zealous partisan of the Reformation, great
changes became manifest. In 1547 the first book of
HomlleS was published. In 1548 Granmer, who had
once more gained ascendancy, with other learned and
discreet bishops and divines had been appointed by
the king to draw up an, order of divine worship#
This proposed order was to have respect for the
pure religion of Christ as was taught in the Scrip
ture and the practices of the primitive Church.
These commissioners put forth the first Service
Book which was approved by convocation and confirm
ed by parliament# A few years later (1558) a new
Service Book was prepared which omitted such tend
encies toward Roman superstitions# This Service
Book came forth with the authority of Parliament
and is in close similarity with the book we now
call the "Book of Common Prayer*#
This same year witnessed the publication of
the ^Forty-two Articles of Religion’ . * They were
framed by the Archbishop at the king * s request and
committed to a group of bishops to be inspected and
approved by them# After several comments by- some
the Archbishop revised certain sections# They were
47
then prescribed by the king to the bishops, who
were in turn given authority to cause their re
spective clergy to subscribe to them. It is a dis
puted fact as to whether or not they ever received
the formal sanction of a convocation.
Some interesting items present themselves in
connection with Cranmer's attitude toward the Forty-
two Articles. For some time previous to the publi
cation, Cranmer had entertained the idea of fram
ing an Evangelical creed which should embrace all
the heads of ecclesiastical doctrine. This he in
tended should be worked out with the aid of the Lu
theran and Swiss Reformers, He evidently maintain
ed a premature idea of establishing a universal
creed for Protestantism, which might counterbal
ance the creed produced at Trent. He reluctantly,
however, abandoned such a plan in favor of the king’s
idea of a purely English formula of public doc
trine in the Forty-two Articles. Another important
item is noticed in Granmer's change of thought re
specting the Eucharistie controversy. The chief as
sistant to Granmer in his labor on the Forty-two
Articles was Ridley. Ridley was decidedly more in
favor of the Reformed views than the Lutheran* Rid
ley exerted considerable influence on Granmer, both
48
consciously and unconsciously, and as a result Cran-
mer finally renounced the doctrine of transuhstanti-
ation and accepted the Reformed view. Thus a few Re
formed tendencies crept into the Articles.
The Forty-two Articles, sometimes alluded to as
the Edwardine Articles, are in substance essentially
the same as the Thirty-nine Articles which were e-
volved during the reign of Elizabeth. They were pat
terned very closely after the Thirteen Articles
which were almost entirely like the Augsburg Con
fession, both in respect to content and wording. Due
to Cranmer's rejection of Luther's doctrine on the
Eucharist and the continental opinions coming to Eng
land through the Genevan school, the Augsburg Con
fession necessarily receded from its foremost place
as guide# Beside the rejection of this Lutheran doc
trine on this one particular subject, the language
of the articles dealing with Justification and Sac
raments was changed to suit the English mind.
The Catholic reaction which set in under Mary
Tudor proved to be of short duration. After a tem
porary suppression of Protestantism, the Articles of
Religion were permanently restored by Elizabeth.
Some few changes, however, were made. In the mean
time, Archbishop Parker drew up his Eleven Articles
49
for circulation, amongst the clergy. These Articles
were a very comprehensive series. They made little
reference to the fundamentals of the Faith# They
especially emphasized the authority of the Scrip
tures and the rights of national Churches. The con
vocation of 1562‘ -3, however, brought out the Forty-
two Articles for final revision. Four Articles had
been struck out: H ) on Blasphemy against the Holy
1
Ghost, (8) on Grace, (3) on Moral Law, and (4) a-
gainst the Millenarians. Four were added* (1) on
the Holy Ghost, (8) on Good Works, (3) on the non-
participation of the wicked in the Holy Communion,
and (4) on Communion in both kinds# The upper con
vocation omitted three more articles; (l)"The Resur
rection of the dead is not yet brought to pass',’ (8)
"The Souls of them that depart this life do neither
die with the bodies nor sleep idly" and (3)’ ’ All men
shall not be saved at length" Seventeen articles were
slightly modified.
The Parliament of England in its history has
had few occasions for religious acts. During Eliza
beth's reign, however, in view of popish agitation,
it required all priests and teachers of religion to
subscribe to the Thirty-nine Articles. Subscription
1
The small section retained on Moral Law was at
tached to Article VII.
50
to these Articles was obligatory practically until
the reign of William and Mary, when the Toleration
Act gave relief in behalf of any dissenters. The
Thirty-nine Articles have remained practically un
changed since Elizabeth's time. The members of the
Church of England in the American colonies belong
ed to the diocese of the Bishop of London. Upon the
separation of American colonies from England, there
was formed an independent organization called the
"Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States
of AmerlcaU A revised provisional liturgy was rather
hastily prepared, containing Twenty Articles of Re
ligion based on the Thirty-nine Articles* This re
vision, however, proved very unsatisfactory and af
ter several conventions the original Thirty-nine
Articles were adopted by a General Convention held,
at Trenton, New Jersey, in 1801. Hence they are ac
cepted in full in:the American Episcopal Churches
with the exception oi uhe omission of the Athanas-
ian creed and such political changes as were neces
sary for adaptation to the separation of Church .
and State#
Our interest especially is to bring out the
close similarity between the Augsburg Confession
and the Thirty-nine Articles. As we have already
5%
mentioned, the Thirteen Articles were drafted almost
completely from, the Augsburg Confession. That the
Forty-two Articles were devised almost solely from
the Thirteen Articles also has been, mentioned. But
several departures from the Lutheran text were made,
especially in connection with the Eucharist, and
mild statements on predestination found entrance: in
to the newer texts. Both of these tendencies were
attributed to Ridley, though the greater influence
directing toward these Galvinistic doctrines came
from those Marian exiles who had spent time enough,
at Geneva to gain clear insight into the Swiss theol
ogy* Such relationship accounted for the Thirty-nine
Articles becoming as Galvinistic relative to the
ideas of the Eucharist and Election. In considering,
however, these creeds, namely the Augsburg Confession
and the Thirty-nine Articles, it is seen, that in
their entirety, they practically agree in substance
on the oecumenical doctrines of the Holy Trinity and
the Incarnation; on the anthropological and soterio-
logical doctrines of free will, sin, and grace; in
their evangelical rejection of errors and abuses of
Rome and in teaching those doctrines of Scripture and
traditions; on justification by faith; on faith and
good works; on the Church; and on the number of sac-
52
rament8. Thus, it is seen that the only differences
cènter around the Eucharist and. Predestination, in
which the Anglicans adopted the Galvinistic view.
Predestination, nevertheless, was accepted only in
a very mild form.
Besides this close similarity in doctrinal con
tent, there was the likeness in form* Practically the
same order is followed in both creeds, and this fact
is accounted for easily, since the Thirteen Articles
and the Augsburg Confession were so nearly identical,
and the Thirteen Articles having been revised several
times, naturally more or less retained the same order
in doctrines*
Although we have brought out in the discussion
that the Lutheran text was gradually modified, the
close examination of these two creeds shows the ex
act words in several sections. In Article I of each
creed, the following clauses are identical as :"Deus
aeternus, in corporeus impartibus, immensa potentia,
sapientia, bonitate,.... creator et conservator om
nium, ., . . viaibilium,. invisibilium, très sunt
personae ejusdem essentiae, potentiae,...Pater,Fil-
1
lus et Spiritus Banctus" This close similarity or
even identical wording is noticed especially in
Article III of the Augsburg Confession and Article
1
Schaff, Creeds of Christendom.I,p,684.
53
II of the Thirty-nine Articles, on the Son. Still
another example may be noted in Article IV of the
Augsburg Confession and Article XI of the Thirty-
nine Articles, pertaining to Justification. Com
parison, also, of Articles VII and XIII of the Augs
burg creed and XIX and. XXV of the Anglican, shows
duplication#
England's position during the Reformation is
reflected clearly in the historical development of
her creed. It is seen to represent an independent
position between Romanism, on the one hand, and Luth
eranism and Calvinism on the other. The English pol
icy in most matters is usually slow and thorough,
practical and conservative* The Reformation is one
of many examples of this. It did not center entire
ly around theology but involved all kinds of polit
ical and ecclesiastical complications# Although re
ceiving the great theological stimulus from the Con
tinent, the English authorities were cautious enough
to slowly evolve an episcopal polity and liturgical
worship, such as maintained the evangelical tenets
without the hasty and extreme innovations, which,
usually accompany the early acts of great revolu
tionary movements. Their Book of Common Prayer is
sometimes designated as Catholic and perhaps it is.
54
but it is purged of superstition and thus ap
proaches the Reformation standards* The English.
Church may have been wise in leaving room for
both Catholic and evangelical ideas, maintain
ing a fixed organic structure which allows for
elastic doctrinal opinions.
55
The Method!8-t Creed*
Without consideration of the historical sequence
of the development of creeds, let us pass on to the
Methodist movement in England, which led to the forma
tion of the Twenty-five Articles of Religion# This dis
cussion will attempt to compare these Articles with the
Augsburg Confession, and show to what extent the latter
was used as a source for the formulation of the Twenty-
five Articles#
The Methodist movement was a providential response
to the moral and spiritual lack of England* Advancing
into the eighteenth century, historical study brings be
fore us the torpor to which the Church of England had
sunk, and out of which our Methodist Reformers were des
tined to raise it* The many long drawn out struggles for
religious supremacy, carried on first by the Episcopal
leaders under Elizabeth and Edward, later, by the Cath
olic Stuarts, and still later by the Puritans, had grad
ually reduced the nation to a low state of religious en
thusiasm. Political corruption was very common. The
morals and manners of the people may be said to have been
lacking in refinement. The austerity of the Puritan
regime produced reactions, and unquestionably tended to
hypocrisy in those whose interests required them to re
56
main in connection with the parliamentary party,
the vigorous discipline into an intolerable burden.
The mass of the people were transferred from one re
ligious system to another, with no option of their
own, and were either submissive or indifferent. The
divergence of views concerning the proper observance
of Sunday promoted general disregard'of the day. Dis
senters of different sects knew little of toleration;
still less, of fraternity* The greatest extremes of
doctrine, discipline, and ritual were advocated with
vehemence. Spiritually minded people deplored the
1
condition of social and ecclesiastical morals.
Into that gloomy period, came John Wesley. This
individual had in his veins the best blood of Eng
land. Whatever heredity could do to produce a relig
ious genius, combined with coolness and sanity of
judgment, that had been done for him. On both sides
of the house, he was descended from clergymen of re
markable piety and independence. His grandfather and
greatgrandfather were Puritan ministers of university
training, and lived through bitter persecutions by
the Church of England and Charles II, His father had
changed his Nonconformist views, suddenly determining
to go to Oxford, then entering himself as a servitor
and poor scholar at Exeter College, He was graduated
1
Fisher, History of Christian Doctrine.00,389-592,
57
In 1688, He became rector at South Ormesby for five
years and then accepted the rectorate at Epworth,
where he preached until his death.
During the childhood and youth of John Wesley,
everything relating to religion excepting morals re
ceived attention in England. From early manhood,
Wesley's life was a continual protest against the
prevalent laxity and immorality of his age. He. studi
ed at Oxford, receiving his Master's degree in 1727.
It was during his stay at Oxford that he organized the
small society of young men for the cultivation of
personal piety and for doing good. His brother, Charles
Wesley, and Whitefleld very early associated, them
selves with this group. The exact regularity of the
lives and faith of these men composing the group oc-
1
casioned the attachment of the name "Methodists" These
young men read such writings as the "Imitation of
Christ" by Thomas a Kempis, Law's "Serious Call" and
Taylor’s "Holy Living and DyingU Their devoutness was
even tinged with asceticism. They frequently partook
of the communion. They visited almshouses and prisons,
and very diligently attempted to instruct and con
sole the suffering. This Oxford society became the
foundation for other similar societies, out of which
1
Fisher, History of the Christian Ghurch.no.515%.530.
58
evolved the great Methodist movement. There was
nothing particularly novel as to the formation of
such, groups of believers. Societies for prayer and
religious improvement had previously existed in
various places in connection with the Church of Eng
land. The new organizations were of the same kind,
and meant to be simply auxiliary to the Church. The
members of the societies were divided into bands or
classes for mutual oversight, and spiritual quick
ening, under the presidency of leaders. Thus we see
that Methodism arose within the borders of the Epis
copal Church, but by the force of circumstances and
contrary to the original intention and preference
of its founders, it drifted into a separate organi
zation.
Very early in 1735, John. Wesley accompanied by
his brother Charles went out as a missionary to
Georgia, Some Moravians were on board, and their
serenity in the midst of a raging tempest, strongly
impressed John Wesley, who, like so. many others on
board, was greatly agitated with fear* Wesley con
sulted the Moravian pastor, and was smitten with
inward misgivings upon hearing the Moravian senti
ments which seemed to assure for them, such peace of
mind. Within two years, Wesley returned to England,
59
and sought out the Moravians In his own country,
and received further.spiritual aid from Peter B6h-
1er, a preacher of that body in London* Shortly
after, in 1758, both John and Charles Wesley were
converted to Luther's doctrine of free salvation
by Justification. From that moment evangelical
Methodism was born#
A very prominent figure in shaping the course
of Methodism was George Whitefield* The reputation
of Whitefleld as the greatest of pulpit orators
soon spread to both continents. On many occasions
buildings could not be found large enough to con
tain the number who desired to hear this man,
and at such times he resorted to the fields. Wes
ley was accustomed to more formal methods and
found it rather difficult tO' approve of this, but
he soon found that Whitefield's plan was the only
possible course, and following his move, Wesley be-
gan to preach to vast assemblies of attentive and
1
excited listeners. The doctrinal differences, how
ever, of uhitefield and John Jesley soon became ap-
parent, and their paths necessarily diverged, each
pursuing a career distinct from the other. Wes
ley was an Arminian in his theology* The Arminian
Wesley's Journal contains many allusions to White-
field.
60
theology had been developed mostly in Holland and
England as a counter charge against the Augustinian
views, and had centered around the question of pre
destination, The emphasis, which Wesley laid on the
need of the Holy Spirit, and the fervent zeal which
pervaded the entire Wesleyan movement, created a
wide disparity between Methodist Arminianlsm as a
practical system, and the old Arminianism of Holland
and England. Whitefield was free from sectarian
spirit, and cared little for organization. His sole
purpose was bent on converting sinners to Christ,
and his work may be said to have furnished a revival
of Puritanism. But he was decidedly Galvinistic on
the question of predestination and free will, and
thus we can only designate him as a promoter and de
veloper of Methodism, rather than a founder. It Is
a very interesting historical fact that Wesley and
Whitefield, these two leaders in reform, never sac
rificed their personal relations of friendship, al
though they could in no way reconcile their views
regarding Calvinism, The greatest respect and admir
ation was expressed on the part of each for the
other.
The Methodist preachers found little favor with
the dignitaries of the established Church. They had
61
to choose between preaching \n halls, barns, in the
open air, or of remaining silent. The rude and un
educated people who attended the Methodist preach
ing were many times given over to all. kinds of e-
motional outbursts, that of screaming and Of - cry?'
tng out, and @f making violent contortions of the
body. This was a natural occurrence when we reflect
upon the social status of the people that were es
pecially benefited by these ardent ministrations#
In short, Methodism was a great outburst of relig
ious feeling. Morals were reformed, crime lessened,
and other such merits and benefits of this inten
sive work carried on by the Methodist leaders, were
noted all over England#
Methodism thus forms the third great wave in.
evangelical Protestant!am. The Reformation had de
stroyed the power of the papacy ; Puritanism aimed
at a more thorough reform in the Church and State,
and even attempted to control the civil and relig
ious life of the nation. Methodism, kept aloof from
politics, and confined itself to the sphere of
practical religion. It owed its success to the un
tiring zeal in preaching the gospel of the new
birth to the common people, and has been character-
1
ized as "Christianity in earnest'.'
1
Schaff, .Creeds of Christendom.I.p.885.
62
■ As above stated, Wesley had no intention of
separating from the Church of England# Although he
performed some uncanonical acts which destined his
Church to secession, he was forced to make the ac
tual break as a necessity, not a deliberate choice
on his part. Dr, Schaff has advanced the opinion
that had the Church of England been as wise and
politic as the Church of Rome, she would have encour
aged and utilized the great revival of the eighteenth
century for the spread of vital Christianity at home
and abroad, and might have made the Wesleyan socie
ties an advocate of her own interests, as powerful as
the Jesuit order has been of Papal interests*
In the United States, the Methodists were made
an independent organization with an episcopal form
of government by Wesley's own act. Wesley, in. England,
had been a Tory, and a firm believer in political non-
resistance. But after the rebellion was over he ac
cepted the providential result and ordained on Sep
tember 2,1784, two presbyters and one superintendent
or bishop for his American Mission, which already em
braced eighty-three traveling preachers and fourteen
thousand, nine hundred eighty-eight members. This or
dination by Wesley was a bold and irregular act, but
in view of its abundant success may be justified as a
63
necessity. A General Conference was held in Balti
more in December 1784, and the first bishops in
America were ordained. In a short time, the socie
ty was fully organized, and had: outrun, many older
denominations* it was destined to be one of the
largest denominations in America# Many subdivisions,
of Methodists are found, but the leading ones are
the Wesleyans in England, and the Methodist Epis
copal Church in United States. The differences be
tween these various branches refer to the episco
pate, the relative powers of the bishops, and the
General Conference, lay representation, and other
very minor matters. The doctrinal creed is the
same in all, with, the exception of the surviving
Whitefield Methodists, who uphold some Galvinistic
tenets#
The chief doctrinal standard of the American
Methodist Churches is the Twenty-five Articles of
Religion. It was prepared by John Wesley from the
Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England., It
was adopted, together with an abridgment of the
Book of Common Prayer, by the Conference in. Balti
more, with the exception of Article XXIII which
recognizes the United States as a sovereign and
independent nation, which article was adopted in
1804. The General Conference, which is the highest
64
of five judicatories, and the only legislative body
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, has declared that
the Articles of Religion are not to be changed, nor
are any new standards or rules of doctrine contrary
thereof to be established.
The Twenty-five Articles represent the doctrines
which Methodism, holds in common with the other evan
gelical Churches, especially with the Church of Eng
land. They are purely an abridgment of the Thirty-
nine Articles, simplified and liberalized* Wesley
omitted the political Articles, which apply only to
England, and those Articles which are strongly Augus-
tlnian, particularly Article XVII on predestination,
which as we have seen in our study teaches uncondit
ional election to salvation, and the preservation of
the elect*
In a close comparison between the Twenty-five.
Articles and the Thirty-nine Articles, we note that
Article I and IT are practically identical. Article
III of the Thirty-nine Articles is omitted entirely.
This Article on "The Going down of Christ into Hell"
2
was thought by Wesl$y unnecessary. The General
Conference of 1786 went further in indorsing the
omission of this Article from the Apostles’ Greed.
1
Wheeler, op.cit..0,10.
2
Ibid.,p.l6.
65
Article VIII on the three creeds Is omitted in
the Methodist Standard. Wesley objected to the two
orthodox creeds; that is the Nicene and Athanasian,
and for that reason omitted the Article» He says
"l dare not insist upon anyone's using tne word
Trinity or Person* If any man has scruples concern
ing them, who shall constrain him to use them? I
cannot; much less would I burn a man alive, and that
with moist green wood, for saying 'Though I believe
the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy
Ghost is God, yet I scruple using the words Trinity
and Persons, because I do not find those terms in
the Biblei"
Article XIII, of Works before Justification, is
omitted* This omission at first seems. Inconsistent
2
with Wesley’s sermon on Justification by Faith* Al
though he indorsed the Article himself, he saw fit
to omit it from his Articles, in as much as he con
jectured that the doctrine might appear strange to
some* Dr* Wheeler Judges Wesley broadminded and wise
in not making it an Article of Religion, notwith
standing the fact that he firmly believed and taught
it himself* Likewise we find Article XV, of Christ
alone without Sin, is left out* Wesley was in full
1
Wesley's Works.II.p*81,
a
Ibid*.p*4Q*
66
accord with the first part of this Article, but con
sidered it as one which might be objectionable to
many people#
As Wesley was decidedly Arminian in his theology,
he rejected the Galvinistic Article XVII, of the
English Standard* From our study above of Wesley's
difference with Whitefield, this rejection seems a
foregone conclusion# Wesley agreed with the Armin-
ians who could never reconcile the fact that God,
possessing wisdom and beneficence as essential at
tributes, could ever make some destined for destruc
tion, much less to interminable anguish, for the mere
1
gratification of a wanton caprice.
The following Articles were omitted; XVIII, of
obtaining eternal Salvation only by the name of
Christ; Article XX, of the Authority of the Church;
XXI, of the Authority of General Councils; XXIII,
of Ministering in the Congregation; XXVI, of the
Unworthiness of the Ministers, which hinders not
the effect of the Sacraments; XXIX, of the Wicked
which eat not the Body of Christ in the use of the
Lord's Supper; XXXIII, of excommunicate Persons,
how they are to be avoided; XXV, of the Homiles;
and XXVI, of Consecration of Bishops and Ministers#
Practically all these Articles were omitted by Wes-
1
Wheeler, op.cit,,p#32#
67
ley, In as much as they curtailed the individual
thought, freedom., and action. The Romanizing and '
more formal tendencies of the Episcopal Church
were discarded by the leaders of the more modem
movement of Methodism, Wesley appears to have been
anxious to strike out, besides Calvinism, those
orthodox doctrines which are not necessarily es
sential to an active practical Christian life. This
mode of attack has led Dr. Schaff to jud^e the
changes as negative rather than positive^ Instead
of incorporating in his Articles of Religion, the
Arminian views accepted by him, Wesley left room
for individual interpretation and expansion, which
after all, forms the basis for the development of
civilization.
We are par ticularly interested, here in our
study, to note the influence of the Augsburg Con
fession on the Twenty-five Articles, Let us start
with Article I, of the Faith in the Holy Trinity,
in the Twenty-five Articles, This Article was de
rived from the Augsburg Confession* It was copied
verbatim into the Thirteen Articles* The Reformers
during that early period made some additions; for
instance, they added "passions"' to the first sec
tion, We note, however, that the Conference of 1784
omitted this word, and thus the whole Article re-
1
Schaff, Creeds of Christendom,I,p*894,
68
1
verts to the Augsburg form#
Article II, of the Word, or Son of God, who
was made very Man, is taken directly from the first
part of Article III of the Augsburg Standard. It
was early incorporated into the Thirteen Articles.
In 1562 the clause "begotten from everlasting of
the Father, the very and eternal God, of one sub
stance with the Father" which was taken from the
Wurtemberg Confession, was added toi the original
Augsburg text, and with this addition, it became
part of the Thirty-nine Articles, and as such, was
accepted in full by Wesley. Article IV, of the
\
Twenty-five Articles, on the Holy Ghost, expresses
in part the thought contained in the Augsburg Creed,
that is, the personality and divinity of the Holy
Ghost, are asserted in the Augsburg text, but no
3
statement is made of the "procession" The whole
Methodist Article IV is taken directly from the
Thirty-nine Articles, which had been derived by the
latter from the Wurtemberg Confession. The striking
similarity of thought, however, leads us to con
clude that the Augsburg Confession was in all prob
ability used as a source for the Wurtemberg statey
ment on this subject.
Wheeler, op.ctt*.p.47.
1
2
Ibid.,p,68.
Ibid.,p.l09.
69
Passing on down to Article VII of the Methodist
Creed,"we note several traces of the Augsburg Con
fession. The section of the Article dealing with
condemnation of the Pelagians and their teachings,
is taken directly from Article II of the Augsburg
Creed. Also the words "original righteousness"
are found in the Thirteenth Article, Then in Arti
cle IX of the Twenty-five Articles, on the Justifi
cation of Man, we note that there is similarity, in
content, to Article IV of the Augsburg series. The
Thirty-nine Articles accepted Bishop Parker's ar
rangement of the Article, who is said to have cop
ied it in 1562, in part from the Augsburg and W&rt-
emberg Confessions* From the Thirty-nine Articles,
1
it passed directly into the Wesleyan form#
Also Articles. XII and XIII of the Twenty-five
Articles, bear a close correspondence to Articles
XII and VII respectively, of.the Augsburg Confess^
ion* The same truths are emphasized, and the same
errors are condemned in both Confessions on the
8
sections dealing with Sin after Justification.- The
3
Church is defined in nearly the same language.
And again, the first section of Article XVI, of
the Methodist Creed, on Sacraments, appears in the
1
Wheeler, on*cit.,p,174,
•Ibid,,p#881»
3
Ibid, *o.-23§.
70
1
Thirteenth Article of the Augsburg text» In Article
XX of the Twenty-five Articles, the same subject was
treated in Article III,Part II of the Augsburg Con
fession, In the last case, however, there is no
2
verbal agreement. Thus,the conclusion is that the
Twenty-five Articles bear close resemblance to the
Augsburg Confession on practically all the major
points of doctrine. It is interesting to see that
both creeds contain no admissions on the subject of
predestination.
The Second Standard of the Methodists is the
"Works of John Wesley" Herein are particularly in
cluded his sermons and Notes on the New Testament.
They are legally binding only on the British Wes
leyan s, but are highly esteemed and as much used
by American Methodists. These writings contain the
more positive views of Wesley. His sermons bring
out the Arminian features of Methodism, which are:
first, freedom of the will, as necessary to respon
sibility* second, self-limitation of divine sover
eignty in the exercise and dealings with free
agents* third, foreknowledge, as preceding and con
ditioning foreordination; fourth, universality of
redemption; fifth, resistibility of divine grace;
sixth, possibility of total and final apostasy.
1
Wheeler, op.clt..0,276,
•,P#344•
71
1
from the state of regeneration and sanctification.
The third doctrinal standard of the Methodists
Is the "Book of Discipline" and several Catechisms;
one published in 1852, and another in 1868. Dis
tinctive features of the Methodist Creed are not
logically formulated like those of the Lutheran
and Reformed Churches, but here again, we find pro
vision for further theological development. By this
elasticity, however, the Methodists claim a dloser
doctrinal harmony than those denominations which.
Impose minute creeds.
The characteristically original features of
the Methodist teaching mdy be summed up briefly.
The doctrine of universal redemption includes a
free, full, and present salvation to every sin»^
ner. Such a salvation is bestowed on condition of
repentance toward Cod* and faith toward our Lord
Jesus Christ, and certified inwardly by the wit
ness of the spirit of Cod, bringing peace of heart,
the sense of God*s fatherly love, and outwardly
by a life of holy obedience. Methodism stands for
Christian brotherhood. It honors the ministry and
cherishes two sacraments, but in its view, the
proof of Church membership lies essentially not in
observance of Sacraments, nor in obedience to
priests, nor in subscription to creeds, but in
t
Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, I ' , p. 895 .
72
fulfilling, Christ's law of lave, by all seeking one
another's company, and. bearing one another's burdens.
Wesley and his followers hold the gospel to be as
large in Its intention as in its extension, and
great enough for the Christian man. to find for him
self and his nation, the perfect cure of sin* dis-
2
ease.
1
Faulkner, op.nit. ,ch.2.
73
The Presbyterian. Greeds,
Let us pass on to the Presbyterian creeds. The
first real Presbyterian creed was the result of the
Reformation in Scotland, which took place during
the middle of the Sixteenth Century* Politically,
the land for two centuries before the Reformation
had been torn by quarrels between the nobles and
the crown. The Scotch parliament, which was in real
ity nothing more than a feudal assembly, was com
posed of aristocrats, who were extremely rough in
their ways, excepting in those few cases where
French influence had brought in more softening man
ners. The various foreign policies, which prevail
ed according as to which faction was in power,
would allow for alliances with England,at one :time,
and with France at other times, This changeable
attitude robbed Scotland of. any stable influence,
and produced a most distressing turmoil within the
State,
During the reign of James V, the political
situation had narrowed down to two alternatives.
Alliance with England was preferred by the nobil
ity. Alliance with France was desired by the Clergy,
who maintained that such a course furthered Rom
ish interests. After the battle at Flodden Eield,
74
so many nobles were killed, that the clergy became
the powerful element. As a natural result, the royal
interests were almost compelled to merge with the
clergy’s vast majority, and further alliances with
France. At the same time, however, an increasing
number of the laity, both nobles and commons, desir
ed a course which leaned toward England, involving
a path toward Protestantism*
The condition of the clergy in Scotland had ar
rived at a deplorable state. The corruptions, by
which the Christian religion was universally dis
figured before the Reformation, had grown to a great
er height in Scotland than in most European countries
Superstitions and religious imposture in very gross
forms, had gained easy admission into the midsts of
a rude and ignorant people. The clergy had succeeded
in attaining great opulence and power, which, as was
the case in other countries, proved to be the source
of so much corruption. By the opening of the Six
teenth Century, one half of the wealth of all Scot
land, had come into the hands of the clergy, and
still worse, most of this wealth was in the hands of
a few dominating individuals. Through the blind de
votion and munificence of princes and nobles, mon~
1
Brown, History of Scotland.I,p•401.
75
astei?ies were greatly multiplied in the nation* The
Ignorance ascribed to the clergy is astounding* The
freedom of ecclesiastical election had been violat
ed, the rights of the sovereign Pontiffs had been •
trampled upon, and the kings had often arrogated to
themselves the power to thrust their own creatures
into vacant bishoprics and benefices*
We see, therefore, that conditions in Scotland
were ripe for the reception of the Reformation,
Added to the few Protestant seeds already scattered
in Scotland by Lollardism and Tyndale'a Testament,
were the early martyrdoms of Patrick Hamilton, who
had studied in Wittenberg; and Marburg, and was burn
ed in 1528; George Wishart, who shared the same fate
in 1546; and later, the aged Walter Mill, who was
executed in 1558.
The outstanding figure of the Scotch Reforma
tion was John Knox. To him no small amount of the
success of the Scotch Reformation is attributed.
He was well educated, having studied at the Univer
sity of Glasgow, and having been ordained in 1530
to the Romish priesthood, but turned• to the Prot
estant faith in 1545. His conversion, was the re
1
Knox, History of the Reformation^I-II
76
suit of intensive study of the Bible and the writ
ings of Augustine and Jerome. As was consistent
with his nature, he became a strong antagonist to
Popery, and his first memorable sermon at St. An
drews included a loud denunciation of the "abomin
able idolatry and profanation of the Lord's Sup
per" Part of his experience, due to political in
trigues, was as a captive, and he along with many
other Protestants was held for two years by the
French as .a galley slave* Upon gaining his freedom,
however, he found it impossible to stay in Scot
land, so accepted a preaching position at Berwick,
England, where his already growing reputation, was
augmented. After several years' successful preach
ing in that country, he was forced once more into
exile, when Mary Tudor gained the throne, and the
following four years, he spent on the Continent.
Most of this time, he resided in Geneva, but a
short part of it was spent in Frankfurt on the
Rhine, where many English Protestant exiles had
formed a Church.
It is this stay at Geneva, with which we are
especially interested in our present study,for
while there, he came into close contact with Cal
vin* Though four years older than Calvin, Knox
77
sat as-an admiring pupil at his feet, and became a
pure Calvinist in theology. He discussed many prob
lems with Calvin, and,judging from his later work,
it may be assumed that while in Geneva he formulat
ed his religious and political views into the exact
system which he later gave over 1.0 Scotland, The
incessant demand for political and civil, as well
as religious liberty in Scotland, owes its origin
to his influence, resultant from his contact with
the Genevan democracy# Thus,in a study of the creed
which is so largely attributed to Knox it will not
be difficult to note the predominant Galvlnistic
tendencies.
Both the creed and the Church of Scotland e-
merge into history at the same time, Thie Reformed
Church of Scotland, although not legally recognized
by the parliament until 1567, was in existence as
early as 1557, when the Lords of the Congregation
had signed a "covenant" to maintain, nourish, and
defend the whole Congregation of Christ, This was
the first of those religious bonds by which the
confederation of Protestants in Scotland was so of-
1
ten ratified to secure common privileges. The
term Congregation .la.ter^ was supplanted by Kirk#
1
Knox, History of the Reformatlon.il.
78
A real formulation of creed resulted when the
parliament, after the death of the Regent Mary of
Guise, took control of ; affairs into its own hands,
and as the first order, demanded Knox and five
other Protestant ministers to draw up a Confession
of Faith. This demand was complied with in a short
time, and when completed, the Confession was read
twice before the parliament which body ratified it
vfith an overwhelming majority# The parliament fur
ther abolished the mass, the jurisdiction of the
Pope, and rescinded all the laws formerly made in
support of the Roman Catholic Church*
A Book of Discipline was prepared by the same
ministers who drew up the Confession, but this book
was rejected by parliament, due to political com
plications, in which England strongly figured. An
other one was prepared, of which the authorship is
assigned chiefly to Melville which, was accepted in
1567 by the parliament and at which time the Re
formed Protestant Church in Scotland was establish
ed as the national religion of that kingdom. Sub
scription was required of all ministers and from
that time on until 1688, this native Confession
was the only legally recognized doctrinal standard
1
Knox, History of the Reformation.II. pp.80-90,
79
of both the Presbyterian and Episcopal "Churches' in
Scotland. The Covenanters during the Commonwealth
of England adopted the Westminster standard, and the
old Scotch Confession receded Into the background.
1
The Scotch Confession consists of twenty-five
articles with a short preface* It covers the oecu
menical doctrines, beginning with God and ending
with the Church, Sacraments, and Civil Magistrates;#
It exhibited a clear, fresh, forcible summary of
orthodox doctrines of the Reformed faith# Though
decidedly Calvinistic, it is free from the scholas
tic technicalities and the Anglican statements of
the Calvinism of a later generation. The doctrine
of Sacraments is similar to, and rather stronger
than the Thirty-nine Articles of England. The Church
is declared to be uninterruptedly' one, from the be
ginning to the end of the world* which Church is
catholic, that is, universal, because it contains
the elect of all ages, all realms, nations, and ton
gues who have communion with God the Father, and
with. His Son, through Sanctification of the Holy
Spirit. But this Church is shown in strong contrast
to the false and apostate Church of the Papacy, and
is distinguished in the three following ways: first.
1
Knox, History of the Reformation.II,pp.05-100.
80
pure preaching of the Gospel* second, right admin
istration of Sacraments* and third, exercise of ec-
clesiasticism. Of these last three named, the first
two are mentioned in the Augsburg Confession, and
the English Articles* the third, however, is purely
Calvinistic and Presbyterian,
The question arises then, as to what extent
the Augsburg Confession exerted any influence on
this Scotch Creed. We will recall that the compari
son above made between the Augsburg Confession and
the Second Helvetic Confession brought out the fact
that there is close similarity between those two
creeds: both accept the ancient creeds; both hold
firmly to the fundamentals of the doctrines con
cerning the person and mediation of Christ, the
reality and perfection of His atonement for human
sin, the work of the Holy Spirit, the constitution *
of the Church, and the office'of minister; and
that the only divergence pertained to the Euchar
ist, bestowal of Grace, and attitude concerning
the rites not expressly sanctioned by Scripture.
Now the Scotch Confession is patterned blosely
after the Second Helvetic Confession, its only
divergence being in respect to Knox’s particular
system of Church polity and ecclesiasticism# All
81
those points common to the Augsburg Confession and
the Second Helvetic Confession, therefore, can be
taken as common to both the Augsburg Greed and the
Scotch Creed# Any influence of the Augsburg Confess
ion on the Scotch Confession that might be claimed
would necessarily be traced over a very round-about
path. But the facts remain evident that there is
similarity throughout both creeds as to form and
procedure, and also as to the similarity in content
on all doctrines excepting those peculiarly Cal
vinistic,
No particular form of Church government or wor
ship was laid down in the Scotch Confession as bind
ing, and freedom was allowed in ceremonies# The
early period of P r e shy t er i an is m in Scotland may be
characterized by its aversions to forms of prayer,
which was a reaction against England’s attempts to
force Episcopacy and liturgy upon the Scotch people.
The formal rituals were antagonistic to them who
by nature preferred more freedom in both action
and thought*
The system of Calvinism which Knox established
in Scotland was most acceptable to that country# It
found there a congenial field of action and became
more free and independent of the civil power#"It
was wrought into the bone and sinew of a nation.
80
which seemed predestined for such a manly, sturdy,
God-fearing, solid, persevering type of Chrlstian-
1
tty" Several differences exist, even to-day, between
the established Kirk, the United Presbyterian Churcl%
the Free Church, and the smaller bodies, but these
differences are insignificant since they refer to
such small questions as psalmody, patronage, and re
lation- to the civil government» The vital Presbyter
ian doctrines and principles are held in common by
all, and Scotland stands out to-day as an unconquer
able fort of orthodox Protestantism*
But the principal Presbyterian standard is the
Westminster Confession. The rise of the Puritan pow
er in England may be considered as one of the fore
most causes leading up to the convening of the West-
minster Assembly. The Puritan sentiments may be traced
bach into the early history of the Reformation in
England, but their rise and power developed mainly
during the seventeenth century, when the political
struggles encountered within England were tempered
considerably by these Puritans# Out of this chaotic
period England evolved as a stronghold of constitu
tional liberty in Europe, while more important was
America's development into a Protestant Republic#
1
Schaff, Creeds of Christendom^I,p*695.
83
After the opening of the Long Parliament (1640),
many leading men of England proposed the convening of
a conference of divines for the settlement of the
theological and ecclesiastical part of the great con
flict# Parliament on its own responsibility issued an
ordinance in 1643 commanding that an assembly of di
vines should be convened at Westminster in London to
effect a more perfect Reformation of the Church of
England regarding liturgy, discipline, and govern
ment, using as a basis the Word of God thus to bring
it into nearer agreement with the Church of Scotland
and other Reformed Churches on the Continent# The
Assembly was to consist of one hundred fifty-one mem
bers in all; thirty lay assessors, and one hundred and
twenty-one divines who were selected from different
1
counties# Presbyterianlsm was not mentioned, but most
of the divines chosen were Presbyterians, with the
exception of the most influential Episcopalians and
Independents# Although the Parliament rather arbitrar
ily designated the time, place, and'appointments,
with the exception of the Scotch divines who were
appointed by their General Assembly, once the West
minster Assembly was constituted it was not inter
fered with, being allowed to enjoy the fullest free
dom of debate*
1
Briggs, ap.cit*.0*133,
84
The composition of the Assembly falls into four
groups* First, there was the Episcopalian division.
Parliament had elected four prelates and five Doc
tors of Divinity, all of them excellently qualified
to represent their Church. But with a possible ex
ception they never attended, as they could not do so
without disloyalty and disobedience to the king. The
second group constituted the Presbyterians, which
decidedly formed a great majority. In this group we
find Thomas Cartwright and Walter Travers, both emi
nent Calvinists, who were ardent antagonists to the
Episcopacy and Prayer Books as developed in their
country* This Presbyterian group, however, was divid
ed on the question of Church polity* One part was
more lenient and held that the form of government
was based on human right, but subject to change ac
cording to the wants of the Church* The higher and
more exclusive Presbyterians maintained that it was
based on divine right and therefore could not be
changed. The third group was called "The Independ-
« ^
ents* This group was limited to a small number,
twelve at the most, but was strong in ability, learn
ing, and weight of character. This small minority
contended that a Christian, congregation should con
sist of converted believers and govern itself accord
1
Hodge, op.M t , .P.37.
85
ing to Christ's law, without being subjected to the
Jurisdiction of presbyteries and synods* Lastly,
the fourth group was known as the Erastians* It
maintained the ecclesiastical supremacy of civil
governments in all matters of discipline and would
make the Church a department of State*
When the international League and Covenant was
adopted by England, Scotland sent five clerical and
three lay commissioners to represent the country*
In the Westminster Assembly these Scotch delegates
who were properly elected by ecclesiastical author
ity declined to be considered members in the ordin
ary sense, but were present and took active part in
the debates* For their number, as compared with the
size of the entire group, they seem, to have.'dispro-
prationately influenced the whole assembly*
The Assembly occupied about five years and six
months for the completion of its work, that is, de
ciding upon the standards of doctrine, worship, and
discipline* As to the doctrine, there were no seri
ous differences among the members. They were all
Calvinists* But in regard to Church government and
discipline there was no unity. In general it may be
said that the Scotch polity prevailed. The Westmins
ter Assembly spent the first ten weeks on the matter
1
Hodge, op.cit, .0*38.'
86
1
of revising the Thirty-nine Articles* The Puritans
regarded those Articles as soundly orthodox in both
substance and spirit, but they desired to make
them more Calvinistic, Fifteen of these Articles,
including the most important doctrines, were there
fore revised. The only change of any importance to
note here is the omission of Article VIII of the
three Creeds. According to Dr,Schaff this Article
was in the copy sent to the Parliament, but omitted
2
in the copy sent to the King. The Assembly certain
ly had no objection to the doctrine of the oecumen
ical creeds for the^doctrinês Of.those creeds are
incorporated in the catechisms formulated by the
Westminster Assembly. But the omission evidently
reveals a difference of opinion within the Assem
bly and it seems natural that many of the Puritans
may have objected to the acknowledgment of any rule
of faith excepting the Scriptures*
The work of revision was interrupted by the
Parliament and the Assembly immediately designated
to proceed upon the Church government question.
Then in consequence of the terms of the Solemn
League and Covenant, Parliament ordered a Confess
ion of Faith to be drawn up for the three kingdoms.
1
Briggs, op.cit..pp.140-144.
2
Schaff, Creeds of Christendom.I,p.755.
87
A Confession was prepared in a little over two years
1
by a special committee appointed from the Assembly#
When finished it was sent to Parliament where sever
al alterations were made by both houses, Owing to
the political confusion existing at that time the
Westminster Confession was actually indorsed twice
by Parliament, which, however, retained an Erastian
plan, for control over discipline. Upon the restora
tion of monarchy the Confession became extinct in
England,
It is a striking historical fact that the coun
try which carried on that memorable Assembly refused
to accept the results of its work. But Scotland and
America indorsed the new creed which was destined to
survive to the present. When the Confession was tak
en to Scotland it wss heartily received by the Gen
eral Assembly in Edinburgh, 1647, and was also ac
cepted by the Scotch Parliament in 1649. Thus it was
received in full by the highest ecclesiastical and
civil authorities in Scotland#
The Westminster Confession consists of thirty-
three Chapters, which cover all the leading articles
of the Christian faith from the creation to the fin
al judgment# It puts forth the Calvinistic system as
it had shaped itself in the minds of the Scotch Prea-
1
Briggs, Qp.ntt.. p p .151-8.
88
byterîans and English Puritans» leading ideas,
with the exception of the theory of the Christian
Sabbath, were of Continental growth. The Arminian
controversy had excited the greatest attention in
England and the continental theology occupied a
prominent place in both pulpit and press. But, al
though the Westminster Confession had the benefits
of the continental theology, its form was pattern
ed after the English Articles. It represents, thus,
a combination of continental theology and English
form. It is a Calvinistic production and a sharper
logical statement of the doctrinal system of the
Thirty-nine Articles, which we will remember stopped
with the less definite Augustinian scheme, and al
lows a considerable margin for individual interpre
tation.
The Westminster Confession is very similar to
the Articles which were adopted by the Protestant
Church in Ireland# Dr. Schaff has furnished a table
2
of comparison in which the similarity of both doc
trines and form, is readily recognized. Calvinistic
doctrine, especially Predestination and Sacraments,
are identical.
Article I, of the Holy Scriptures, of the West-
1
8chaff, Creeds of Christendom.I.o.760.
2
Ibid.,pp.760-5.
minster creed, deals with the relation of the Scrip
tures to God, It conveys the idea that God at differ
ent times made a supernatural revelation of himself
to some favored portion of the race; this revelation,
having been converted into written form, is exclu
sively embraced in the Holy Scriptures; the author
ity of the Scriptures rests on the Church, but im
mediately on God; their internal characteristics
prove the Scriptures to be divine; and they are a
complete rule of faith;
In Chapter II, dealing with, the Trinity, and
Chapter VIII, dealing with Christ the Mediator, the
Westminster creed gives very excellent statements, of
the Nlcene doctrine of the Trinity and of the Ghal-
cedonian Christology. In this respect there is ab
solute agreement with the Evangelical creeds which
ofcourse include the Augsburg Confession. The Augs
burg creed dealt with these in Articles I and III
respectively#
Articles VI to IX contain the anthropology
doctrines which are decidedly Calvinistic. Chapter
VI takes up the Pall of Man, Sin, and the Punish
ment thereof. This same matter is contained in the
Augsburg Confession in Articles II and XIX, but the
views greatly differ, as one is an exact expression
1
Hodge, oo.cit..ch,l
90
of Calvinism while the other is Lutheran. To the
Westminster Articles is added the Scotch innovation
of Covenants which are more Biblical than the scho
lastic divine decrees. Chapter VII distinguishes
two covenants of God with Man; the covenant of Works,
made with Adam: on condition of perfect obedience,
and a covenant of Grace made in Christ with believ
ers offering free salvation on condition of faith.
Chapter IX deals with Free Will, and Article XVIII
of the Augsburg creed deals with the same subject,-
but here again there is no similarity of doctrine.
Chapters X to XVIII of the Westminster Confess
ion take up the Calvinistic formulation of the Evan
gelical doctrines of Justification, Adoption, Sancti
fication, saving faith, good works, and the assur
ance of salvation# These Articles state that to all
those who are "effectually called" there is justi
fication, which is a judicial act of God; that faith
is a gift of God; that faith alone, but not faith
which is alone, justifies; that justification is a
stupendous exercise of free grace; that Justified
men, although temporarily they may fall under God’s
displeasure because of sin, will never be finally
abandoned; and that the gracious principle implant
ed in regeneration is gradually developed in sancti-
flcatîon» It goes on to state that saving faith is
the work of the Holy Ghost, by means of the Word and
is strengthened by the use of the sacraments and
prayer# These statements are the Calvinistic inter
pretations of the same doctrines that Luther dealt
with in ArticlesIV and VI of his creed. Both the
Westminster and the Augsburg Confessions have sec
tions on Repentance and Good Works and are some-
1
what similar in content*
The Westminster Confession denotes Articles
XXV and XXVI to their special ecclesiastical sys
tem. Here we find the Protestant distinction between
the invisible and the visible Church and the purest
of Churches are maintained as being subject to error#
The Confession purely aimed at full freedom for
Churches in the management of their own affairs. We
will recall that the Augsburg Confession had a
short section on Ecclesiasticism, but no real form
of government was designated.
Both the Augsburg and the Westminster Confess
ions devote sections to the Sacraments# The Lord's
Supper in the creeds widely differs, as this was
one of the fundamental differences in the early days
of evangelical history. The section on Baptism, how
1
Hodge, op,cit#,eh,X-XVIII,
92
ever, does not diverge widely. The Lutheran statement
is very brief, but does not differ in any of the.
essentials»
We would conclude then, that the Westminster
Confession, although formulated so long after the
Augsburg Confession, dealt with many of the same
Christian doctrines as did the Lutheran creed* The
general procedure and form are not very dissimilar*.
The Westminster Confession was the culmination of
the Calvinistic theology, and as such, contained
the greatly developed idea of predestination, added
to those differences we have already brought out in
our comparison of the Second Helvetic and Augsburg
Confessions*
As we have previously mentioned, the spread of
Presbyterianlsm was temporarily restricted under the
reign of Charles II and James II in England, When
James II proposed to reestablish popery in his do
minions the Presbyterians of great Britain arose as
one man. They forgot all the injuries they had re
ceived from the prelates. They preferred prelacy
to papacy and were active forces in the Revolution
which gave ,the English throne to William and Mary,
Upon the accession of William, and Mary in 1688
93
Presbyterianlsm as well as other denominations was
granted toleration in England and Ireland; it had
already received permanent embodiment in Scotland,
The greatest success to the Westminster stand
ards we ascribe to America, Long before the edict
of toleration of 1688, Puritans emigrating from Eng
land and Presbyterians emigrating from Scotland and
Northern Ireland came to America. All these Presby
terians used at first the Westminster standards; with
out alteration. The Presbytery of Philadelphia, the
oldest in America, was organized in 1706; the synod
of Philadelphia, in 1717; and the Synod of New York,
in 1743. The Synod of Philadelphia in September 1729
1
adopted the Confession. After the Revolution the
Synod of Philadelphia and New York which met in Phil
adelphia 1787, devised a few alterations and these
alterations were immediately adopted. These changes
consisted in the omission of all those sentences,
2
which implied any union of Church and State, The
3
Westminster Catechisms were recognized and recom
mended for daily use by the Synod,
1
Members of the Synod declared that all ministers of
that Synod should declare agreement with the West
minster Confession. They felt that they co\tLd not
insist upon any oath or confession on the matter,
but felt that they should Insist at least upon de
clared agreement,
2
Hodge, op.cit..p,2l.
3
The Westminster Catechisms were the product of the
94
The Congregational-1st and Baptist Greeds,
Congregationalism has always accorded liberty
to local Churches in their interpretation of doc- *
trine and polity. Its creeds are not exclusively
binding, and its platforms have always been held
to be open to revision* They have been witnesses
to the faith and practice of the Churches, rather
1
than tests for subscription* At the Congregational
Synod of Cambridge, however, in the Colony of Mass
achusetts, held in 1648, it was decided that the
Congregational Churches would accept "the doctrin
al part of the work of the Westminster Assembly"
for substance thereof. The Savoy Synod in London
ten years later expressed a like concurrence. With
the spread of Unitarianism in America local Con
gregational Creeds were formed, but these natural
ly differed. But a systematic creed for the Con-
gregationalists Is almost impossible since the im
position of a creed almost necessarily infringes
on the right of self-government inhering in each
of then..
The Baptists represent one of the most numer
ous branches of Protestantism in the United States,
1
Walker, op,clt.,p.l85.
95
Like the Congregationalists they have nio binding
creed and their whole ecclesiastical system is. char
acterized by a spirit of independence. The history
of the Baptists dates back to the pre-Reformation
period when.cèrtâîn groups attempted to have the
Christian teachings as set forth by Christ in the
New Testament adhered to in a very strict manner*
"Regeneration" by baptism became one of their out«
standing doctrines and from, that time they have
been characterized as Baptists# In England, the Par
ticular, sometimes called Regular, Baptists publish
ed a modified form of the Westminster confession
and this same creed was reissued in 1688. This still
forms the basis of the English Confession. In the
United States many of the Southern and Southwestern
Baptists approve of this same system of doctrine,
which they term the Philadelphia Confession# The
General Baptists brethren-in England issued a Con
fession in 1678. This creed is Arminian in character
hence those Baptists are many times called. Free-
1
Will Baptists.
During the latter part of the nineteenth cen
tury many of the Baptist Churches in England changed
1
Vedder, op_,ci_L% ,p#165.
96
their attitude with regard to”close"communion*
Many Churches concluded that the neglect of bap
tism could be tolerated and that sincerity rather
than outward obedience should be the test of gen
uine Christianity. Thus many Baptist Churches in
both England and United States became "open"
In America we find these same two main divis
ions of Baptists, Regular and General* As in Eng
land these have strong tendencies toward Calvin
ism and Arminianism respectively* Theoretically,
there is no ecclesiastical polity whereby these
Churches are Joined in any way to conform to cer
tain standards, but practically, they unite in
assemblies to further their "Baptist .Ideals" No
creed is put forth for acceptance, but the doc
trines adhered to are similar in part to the doc
trines of the Westminster standards,and in part
to some of the Arminian doctrines of the Twenty-
five Articles of Religion.
The Baptist doctrines of the Sacraments are
peculiar to that denomination and these repre
sent their chief outstanding differences from
other Protestant denominations. They teach that
believers only ought to be baptized; that is,
dipped or immersed, on a voluntary confession of
97
their faith. They reject infant baptism, as an un-
scriptural innovation and profanation of the sac
rament, but they maintain that there is salvation
for all children dying before the age of respon
sibility .
.Thus we see that although the Baptists do
not use their creeds as tests of orthodoxy, they
have formulated definite doctrines to which they
adhere. Examination of many of the Baptist creeds
shows that practically all the same subjects,
which we traced through the Protestant Confessions
above, are taken up and defined*
98
Conclusion.
Thus it is seen that the Christian doctrines
have experienced a continual growth** All the creeds
of Christendom are supposed to be founded on the
Bible and on the inspired teaching of the Church.
All bear, however, the marks of their birthtime
and birthplace, following an historical development
and sequence*
The period of the Reformation is seen to be
richer in its symbolic literature than any- other
one in the history of the Church. The early con
fessions, although few in number, carefully con
structed the doctrine of the Trinity, but^presented
less distinct and,to some degree, only implied
statements respecting the topics, of sin and redemp
tion.
The Augsburg Confession maintains a prominent
place with respect to the formulation of all the
modern creeds. The modern creeds stand in relation
to the early creeds as their necessary supplements,
filling up their deficiencies, and so rounding
them into the perfect fulness of Christian doctrine*
Where the older creeds are scanty, the later are
full; and what the earlier omit, the, latter amply
99
supply* Thus the Augsburg Confession -marked a
starting point in the fuller development of the
Christian doctrines which were not included in
the oecumenical creeds* It made a definite step
in this fuller creed development, thereby furnish
ing an example to the many other Protestant creeds.
Prom that time is noted the appearance and elabor
ation of the following doctrines: the office and
ministry of Christ,* the work of the Holy Spirit, in
the application of redemption to the individual;
the nature, penalty, and universality of sin; the
expiatory sacrifice of Christ, and all that its oper
ation and its defence demand; the righteousness of
faith, with all its definitions and safeguards; and
the inspiration and authority of the Holy Scriptures,
true characteristics and notes of the Church,
The interpretations and fulness of these doc
trines have been shown to vary but the outstanding
fact is evident that the Augsburg Confession in
cluded all these Protestant doctrines. By its dig
nified simplicity and temperate tone, it served as
a model as well as the mother of the Reformation
creeds* No subsequent Confession has been drawn up
without regard to its teaching#
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sources:
Knox, John.History of the Reformation. 3 vols.
Edited by David Laing.
Thomas George Stevenson, Edinburgh, 1864,
Schaff, Philip, The Creeds of Christendom. 3 vols
Harper & Bros. Hew York, 1899.
Statutes of the Scottish Church. 1225-1559.
A Translation with introduction and notes
by David Patrick, University Press,
Edinburgh, 1907.
The Heart of John Wesley*s Journal, Edited by
Percy L. Parker# Fleming H. Revell Co..,
London#
Korks of John Wesley. 7 vols# Third American
complete and standard edition*
Eaton & Mains, New York*
Wheeler, Henry, History and Exposition of the
Twenty-five Articles of Religion of the
Methodist Episcopal Church# Jennings and
Graham, Cincinnati, 1908.
Winer, George Benedict, Comparative View of the
Doctrines and Confessions of the Various
Communities of Christendom* T.& T.Clark,
Edinburgh.
Secondary Authorities:
Bacon, Leonard Woolsey, The CohAreKationalista*
Baker & Taylor Co., New York, 1904.
Briggs, Charles Augustus, American Presbyterianism.
Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1885.
BroTO, P. Hume, History of Scotland. 3-vols.
University Press, Cambridge, 1905.
Case, Shirley Jackson. The Evolution of Early Chris-
tianltv.
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1914.
Cross, Arthur Lyon, A History of England and
Greater Britain.*
The Macmillan Co#, New York, 1915.
Daniels, W%H., History of Methodism in Greater
Britain and America,
Phillips & Hunt, New York, 1880.
Faulkner, John Alfred, The Methodists.
Baker & Taylor Co., New York, 1903.
Fisher, George Park, History of the Christian Church.
Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1902.
History of Christian Doctrine.
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1896.
Hagenbaoh, K.R. , A History of Christian Doctrines..
3 vols. Translated from Fifth German Edition.
T.& T. Clark, Edinburgh, 1880.
Hagenbach, K.R,, History of the Reformation.
2 vols# Translated from the Fourth German
Edition by Evelina Moore. T#& T.Clark,
Edinburgh, 1878.
Hodge, Archibald Alexander, A Commentary on the
Confession of Faith# Presbyterian Board of
Publication and Sabbath School Work,
Philadelphia, 1869#
Lightfoot, J.B., Dissertations on the Apostolic
Age. Macmillan-& Co., Nevr York, 1892.
Lindsay, Thomas M*, History of the Reformation.
2 vols» Charles Scribner's Sons, New York,
1906.
McConnell, S#D., History of the American Episcopal
Church. A.R.Mowbray & Co., London, 1916.
Ranke, Leopold Von, History of the Reformation in
Germany. Translated by Sarah Austin#
George Rontledge and Sons, Ltd*, London 1905#
Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church.
7 vols. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1894.
Shedd, William G.T., A History of Christian Doc
trine . 2 vols. Charles Scribner's Sons, New
York, 1864#
Tiffany, Charles C., History of the Protestant
Episcopal Church in United States of America.
Charles Scribner's Sons#
Vedder, Henry C., A Short History bf the
Baptists. American Baptist Publication
. Society, Philadelphia, 1897.
Walker, Williston, The Creeds and Platforms
of Congregationalism.
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1893.

Asset Metadata

Creator Lockman, Mabel Elizabeth (author)

Core Title An historical study of the Augsburg Confession as an influence on the creeds of certain Protestant churches

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Master of Arts

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Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,philosophy, religion and theology

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Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c39-292418

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Rights Lockman, Mabel Elizabeth

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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