Psychodynamic factors in the use of religious devotional literature

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Content PSYCHODYHAMIC FACTORS
IN THE USE OP RELIGIOUS DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE
A T h e s is
P r e s e n t e d to
th e F a c u lty o f th e G ra d u a te School
U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a
In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t
o f th e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r th e D egree
M a ste r o f A r ts
by
J o s e p h Havens
A ugust 1950
UM l Number: EP65198
All rights reserved
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This thesis, written by
...............................................
under the guidance of h.Xs.. Faculty Committee,
and approved by all its members, has been
presented to and accepted by the Council on
Graduate Study and Research in partial fulfill
ment of the requirements for the degree of
Date.
...Art.a....
AUG 1950
Faculty Committee
Chairmi
table of contents
CHAPTER PAGE
HISTORICAL AND MODERN ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM. . . 1
The a r t o f s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n . . . . . * # * # 1
S p i r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n in th e C a th o l i c Church. . 1
D e v o tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e and modern p sy c h o lo g y » ♦ 4
S ta te m e n t o f th e p ro b lem . . . . . . . . . . . 5
D e f i n i t i o n o f d e v o ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . . . . * 7
Method o f p ro c e d u re 7
I I . THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL,FRAME OF REFERENCE-. .... 9
The p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l th e o ry o f p e r s o n a l i t y * ♦ , 10
The b a s i c human n eed. 12
The s e l f"“Cone e p t « 13
S o c ia l a s p e c t s . 16
I I I ^ PSYCHODYNAMIC FACTORS IN THE USE OF DEVOTIONAL
LITERATURE. . . .............................................................................. 19
W ith in th e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l fram e of r e f e r e n c e * 19
D e v o tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e a s t h r e a t o r
s a t i s f a c t i o n . 19
W ith a r e s t r i c t e d s e l f - c o n c e p t * . * * # # * 22
W ith an i n c l u s i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t . . . . . . * 23
W ith in a ‘ ‘s u p e r - i n d i v i d u a l ” o r i e n t a t i o n . * . # 24
Psychodynam ics d e te rm in e d by th e t o t a l
s i t u a t i o n . » . # . . . # # * * # # . # # * 28
i l l
CHAPTER PAGE
W ith in th e p s y c h o a n a l y ti c fram e o f r e f e r e n c e . , 29
B i b l i o t h e r a p y . * # . 2 9
Com pulsive t h i n k i n g . . , . . . . * * . * . * 3 2
C o l l e c t i n g r e a s s u r a n c e s a g a i n s t a n x ie ty . . * 34
IV. ILLUSTRATIVE CASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Case A* - E m ersonian T heology. . . . . . . . . . 38
Case B# - S u p e r n a tu r a l T heology, . . . . . . . . 39
Case C. - T h i r t y - e i g h t h P salm . . . . . . . . * ♦ 41
Case D* - Dorn Chapman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6
C ase E, - Thomas a Kempis* . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1
Case F. - I s a a c P e n in g to n . * .. ... .. *# # 56
Case G. - Thomas K e lle y . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Case H# - Romans 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 8
Case I# - M e is te r E c k h a r t. . . . . . . . . , . * 7 1
V. PSYCHODYHAMICS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE TOTAL
LIFE-COÜRSE. . . . .............................. 77
The c o u rs e o f l i f e a s G e s t a l t # . . . . . . . . . 7 7
D e v o tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e and th e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n
o f c o n f l i c t , . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 7 8
VI, smiMARY AND CONCLUSIONS# . , # . . . # ...................... # 8 4
G e n e ra l summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 8 4
C o n c lu s io n s . . . . . . . . . . , . . , . . . * * 8 5
The im p o rta n c e o f psychodynam ic f a c t o r s . . . # 85
iv
CHAPTER PAGE
The need f o r g u id a n c e . 85
S u g g e s tio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . . . • * 86
BIBLIOGRAPHY , ............................................................. 89
CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL AND MODERN ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM
I THE ART OF SPIRITUAL DIRECTION
One o f th e m ajor j u s t i f i c a t i o n s f o r u n d e r ta k in g a
stu d y such a s t h i s i s th e c o n tin u e d w id e - s p r e a d use o f de
v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . Among C a t h o l i c s and E p i s c o p a l i a n s , th e
lo n g t r a d i t i o n o f t h e use o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e c o n ti n u e s
and may p o s s i b l y be g ro w in g . Among P r o t e s t a n t s , t h e r e seems
to be a r e s u r g e n c e o f i n t e r e s t i n d e v o ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e , th e
r e f l e c t i o n o f w hich may be se en in th e r e c e n t r e p u b l i c a t i o n
by H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s o f s e v e r a l o l d e r d e v o ti o n a l c l a s s i c s
( The C loud o f Unknowing : P e n s i o n 's C h r i s t i a n P e r f e c t i o n ;
e t c . ) , and i n th e p o p u l a r i t y o f such c o n tem p o rary w r i t e r s
a s D ouglas V. S t e e r e , G e r a ld H eard, and R ufus M. J o n e s . On
a more p o p u l a r l e v e l t h i s new i n t e r e s t in th e i n n e r l i f e may
be se en i n t h o s e new m ovements, such a s U n ity , w hich empha
s i z e t h e im p o rta n c e o f o n e 's i n n e r s t a t e o f mind and w hich
p r o v i d e d e v o ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e t o p ro d u c e th e d e s i r e d s t a t e .
S p i r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n i n th e C a th o l i c C hurch. B ut alon g
w i t h t h i s h e ig h te n e d i n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o u s r e a d in g t h e r e h a s
come l i t t l e o f what h a s been c a l l e d “s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n . "
I n th e Roman C a th o lic C hurch, th e term " s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n "
h a s r e f e r r e d to th e g u id a n c e g iv e n by p r i e s t s o r o t h e r s to
s p i r i t u a l s e e k e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p r a y e r l i f e #
I t h a s b een u se d e s p e c i a l l y in m o n a s te r ie s and c o n v e n ts ,
w here th e d e v o ti o n a l l i f e h a s been p u r s u e d most i n t e n s i v e l y $
b u t i t i s n o t uncommon f o r p a r i s h p r i e s t s and even l a y Cath
o l i c s to a c t a s s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t o r s f o r t h o s e o u t s i d e o f th e
r e l i g i o u s o rd e rs * F a t h e r A u g u s tin B a k e r, w r i t i n g in th e 1 7 th
C e n tu ry , h a s t h i s to say a b o u t th e f u n c t i o n s o f a s p i r i t u a l
d i r e c t o r :
But by a s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t o r I i n t e n d one th a t* * #
i s to i n s t r u c t th e d i s c i p l e in a l l th e p e c u l i a r d u t i e s
o f an i n t e r n a l l i f e ; t h a t I s , to ju d g e o f h e r p ro p e n s io n
t o c o n te m p la tiv e ways, and t h a t c an a t l e a s t t e a c h h e r
how she may f i t h e r s e l f w ith a d e g re e o f p r a y e r p r o p e r
f o r h e r ; * * . t h a t can judge what em ploym ents, e t c .
a r e h e l p f u l o r h i n d e r i n g to h e r p r o g r e s s in i n t e r n a l
ways; b u t e s p e c i a l l y t h a t can t e a c h h e r how to d is p o s e
h e r s e l f to h e a rk e n to and f o llo w G o d 's i n t e r n a l t e a c h
i n g , and to s ta n d i n no more n eed o f c o n s u l t i n g h e r
e x t e r n a l d i r e c t o r , e t c . ^
The i n s t r u c t o r t h e r e f o r e i s to behave h i m s e l f to w ard s
them a l l a c c o rd in g to t h e q u a l i t y and n e ed o f each s p i r
i t , alw ays rem em bering t h a t h i s o f f i c e i s n o t to t e a c h
h i s own way o f p r a y e r , e t c . , b u t to i n s t r u c t h i s d i s c i
p l e s how th ey may th e m se lv e s f i n d o u t th e way p r o p e r
f o r them, by o b s e r v in g th e m s e lv e s w hat d o e th good and
what c a u s e t h harm to t h e i r s p i r i t s ; * . . ."^
I t i s o b v io u s from t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t a m ajor t a s k o f th e
s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t o r i s th e s e l e c t i o n and recom m endation o f
^ F. A u g u s tin B a k e r, Holy Wisdom (London: B u rn s , O a tes &
W ashburn, 1876) p#75.
^ Ibid. p .8 5
3
d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e on th e b a s i s o f th e needs o f th e
s e e k e r . In a d d i t i o n , o f c o u r s e , th e d i r e c t o r must see t h a t a
c r e a t i v e and g ro w th fu l u se i s made o f th e l i t e r a t u r e ; he
m ust h a v e , in o t h e r w o rd s, some com preh en sio n o f th e dynamic
u se w hich i s b e in g made o f t h e c o n t e n t o f th e l i t e r a t u r e .
I t w ould seem, t h e n , t h a t from C a th o lic s o u r c e s we
o u g h t to l e a r n much ab o u t th e use and m isuse o f d e v o t i o n a l
l i t e r a t u r e w hich would th ro w l i g h t on o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f
p sy ch o d y n am ic8. U n f o r t u n a t e ly how ever, t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e ;
t h e r e a p p e a rs to be l i t t l e in th e C a th o l i c w r i t i n g s on th e
u se o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e t h a t c o u ld be r e l a t e d t o what
we c a l l p sych o d y n am ics. The r e a s o n f o r t h i s seems to be two
f o l d . I n th e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e fram e o f r e f e r e n c e in w hich
C a t h o l i c s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n h a s b e en p r a c t i c e d i s t h a t o f
" l e v e l s o f p r a y e r " and i s o r i e n t e d l a r g e l y in te rm s o f th e
s o u l ' s r e l a t i o n to God, to C h r i s t , and to th e C hurch. Our
fram e o f r e f e r e n c e , on th e o t h e r han d , i s much more t h a t o f
th e i n d i v i d u a l and what g o e s on w i t h i n him i n term s o f h i s
own i n n e r p e r c e p t i o n s . I n t h e seco nd p l a c e , we a r e l e d by
th e l i t e r a t u r e to assume t h a t much o f t h e knowledge o f s ÿ ) if i-
t u a l d i r e c t i o n i s p a s s e d on from d i r e c t o r to d i r e c t o r by
p e r s o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n , and t h a t v e ry l i t t l e o f th e s k i l l and
wisdom o f th e s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t o r i s known by o r a v a i l a b l e
to th e p u b l i c . T here i s s u r e l y a l a r g e e lem en t o f i n t u i t i v e
i n s i g h t in r e l i g i o u s g u id a n c e , w hich i s m o stly th e r e s u l t o f
4
tem peram ent and lo n g e x p e r i e n c e , and w hich c o u ld n e v e r be
s y s te m a t i z e d . I t sh o u ld be added t h a t in t h i s stu d y o n ly
C a th o l i c l i t e r a t u r e on th e s u b j e c t was i n v e s t i g a t e d , and
i n d i v i d u a l p r i e s t s who m ight have g iv e n more s p e c i f i c i n f o r
m a tio n i n term s o f t h e i r own p r a c t i c e w ere n o t c o n s u l t e d . I t
m ust be c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e wisdom o f lo n g C a th o l i c e x p e rie n c e
'i n t h i s m a t t e r i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , a t l e a s t w i t h i n th e l i m i t e d
scope o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s f o r t h i s p a p e r . ^
I I DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE AND MODERN PSYCHOLOGY
B e g in n in g w i t h F reu d in h i s b ook . The F u tu re o f ajn
I l l u s i o n , i t h a s become common p r a c t i c e among p s y c h o a n a l y s t s
to p o i n t o u t th e n e u r o t i c b a s i s o f r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s and
p r a c t i c e s . W ith a few n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n s , th e o u t s t a n d i n g
one b e in g C .G .Ju n g , p s y c h o a n a l y s t s have d is m is s e d r e l i g i o n
e i t h e r a s an e x p r e s s io n o f m is p la c e d l i b i d o , o r as an in a d e
q u a te r e s o l u t i o n o f th e O edipus com plex, o r th e y have p a s s e d
o v e r i t a s o u t s i d e t h e i r k e n , and have f a i l e d to d e a l w ith
i t a s a p o s i t i v e o r i n t e g r a t i v e f o r c e in th e p e r s o n a l i t y .
However, anyone who s t u d i e s th e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s
o f t h e m isuse o f r e l i g i o n c a n n o t h e lp b u t f i n d i n them much
t r u t h . Even making g e n e ro u s a llo w a n c e s f o r e r r o r and f o r
3 See B ib lio g r a p h y f o r l i s t i n g o f C a th o l i c books c o n s u lte d .
5
some p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t r e l i g i o n , t h e r e i s s t i l l much to be
l e a r n e d from what p s y c h o a n a l y s i s h a s to say a b o u t th e p s y
chodynam ics o f r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f and p r a c t i c e . T h ere i s
r a t h e r l i t t l e m a t e r i a l in th e p s y c h o a n a l y ti c l i t e r a t u r e
t h a t d e a l s s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h th e use o f d e v o t i o n a l w r i t i n g s ,
b u t t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n l y many m echanism s d e s c r i b e d by a n a
l y s t s w hich a r e r e l e v a n t t o th e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
P e rh a p s th e most c o m p e llin g a s p e c t o f t h e c h a l le n g e
w hich th e p s y c h o l o g i s t s have made to r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s l i e s
in th e grow ing number o f c a s e h i s t o r i e s w hich a t t e s t t o th e
m isu se o f r e l i g i o n . T h is i s t r u e n o t o n ly i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s
b u t e s p e c i a l l y i n t h a t sc h o o l o f c l i n i c a l p s y c h o lo g y , th e
n o n - d i r e c t i v e o r c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d s c h o o l, i n w hich v e rb a tim
r e c o r d s a re made o f th e t h e r a p e u t i c s e s s i o n s . H ere t h e r e i s
i r r e f u t a b l e e v id e n c e c o n c e rn in g th e e f f e c t s w hich th e mal
p r a c t i c e o f r e l i g i o n can h a v e .^ Modern dynamic p sy c h o lo g y
r e a l l y came i n t o b e in g th r o u g h i n s i g h t s i n c l i n i c a l p r a c
t i c e , and r e l i g i o u s t h i n k e r s a ls o can g a in much from th e r e
s u l t s o f c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r a c t i c e .
S ta te m e n t o f th e p ro b le m . F i n a l l y we a r e i n a p o s i
t i o n t o s t a t e th e p ro b lem o f t h i s s tu d y . E s s e n t i a l l y i t i s
an a tte m p t to i s o l a t e and i n v e s t i g a t e th e d i f f e r e n t p sy c h o -
4 See, f o r exam ple, th e c a s e o f "B a rb a ra" i n R o g e rs' Coun
s e l i n g and P s y c h o th e r a p y . p p . 185-94 and p p . 2 1 1 -1 2 .
6
dynamic f a c t o r s w hich d e te rm in e t h e u se an i n d i v i d u a l makes
o f r e l i g i o u s d e v o ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . T h e o r e t i c a l l y we a r e i n
t e r e s t e d b o th i n th e c r e a t i v e , g r o w th f u l use o f such l i t e r a
t u r e , and i n th e n e g a t iv e o r p a t h o l o g i c a l u s e . In a c t u a l i t y ,
how ever, f o r r e a s o n s s t a t e d below , we s h a l l c o n c e n t r a t e more
on th e m isu se th a n on th e p o s i t i v e u s e . S in ce a m ajo r empha
s i s o f t h i s stu d y i s e m p i r ic a l and c l i n i c a l r a t h e r th a n
t h e o r e t i c a l and s p e c u l a t i v e , a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f th e t h e s i s
i s d e v o te d to c a s e s t u d i e s , and t h e p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s o f
th e p ro b lem w i l l be u p p erm o st. I t i s hoped t h a t t h e stu d y
may be o f some use to m i n i s t e r s , r e l i g i o u s t e a c h e r s and
o t h e r s who a r e i n a p o s i t i o n to recommend s p i r i t u a l r e a d in g
to o th e r s #
T here a r e s u rv e y s w hich i n d i c a t e t h a t a g r e a t many
more p e o p le a r e t a k i n g to p s y c h o l o g i s t s r a t h e r th a n to m in i
s t e r s t h e i r p e r s o n a l t r o u b l e s , and even t h e i r u n s a t i s f i e d
n e e d s f o r more abundant l i f e . T here i s in t h i s f a c t a c h a l
le n g e w hich must be met i f r e l i g i o n i s to c o n tin u e to make
i t s u n iq u e c o n t r i b u t i o n i n th e c u r e o f s o u l s . One way o f
m ee tin g t h i s c h a lle n g e i s to a tte m p t t o u n d e rs ta n d w hat
p sy c h o lo g y and p s y c h i a t r y have to t e a c h u s. An em in en t
p s y c h o a n a l y s t , K a rl M enninger, h a s t h i s to say :
I f I were a m i n i s t e r I would stu d y w ith th e p s y c h i a t r i s t
some o f th o s e i n s t a n c e s i n w hich r e l i g i o n h a s seemed to
do harm r a t h e r th a n good f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l ; I sh o u ld
stu d y them w ith o u t p r e j u d i c e and w ith o u t f e a r .
, . . r e l i g i o n may mean d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s t o . d i f f e r e n t
p e o p le and . . . p s y c h o l o g i c a l m echanism s d e te rm in e what
ty p e o f r e l i g i o n w i l l s a t i s f y a p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l .
The manner i n w hich a man u t i l i z e s h i s r e l i g i o n . . . i s
a commentary on th e s t a t e o f h i s m en tal h e a l th » ^
D e f i n i t i o n o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . At t h i s p o i n t
s h o u ld be made c l e a r J u s t w hat i s m eant by .^ d ev p tio h al l i t
e r a t u r e . " A c t u a l ly t h i s term sh o u ld be g iv e n a s b ro a d an i n
t e r p r e t a t i o n a s i t w i l l c a r r y . For th e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s
s t u d y , any l i t e r a t u r e sh o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d d e v o t i o n a l i f i t
c o n t r i b u t e s i n some way o r a n o th e r t o t h e p r i v a t e r e l i g i o u s
l i f e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , o r , i n o t h e r w o rd s, i f i t i s more
th a n sim ply an i n t e l l e c t u a l s tu d y . Thus th e most t h e o r e t i c a l
k i n d o f r e l i g i o u s p h ilo s o p h y would be c o n s i d e r e d d e v o ti o n a l
i f i t had a dynamic and c h a n g e -p ro d u c in g e f f e c t upon th e
r e a d e r ' s view o f God, h i s fe llo w -m e n , o r t h e w o rld a b o u t
him . I n n e a r l y a l l th e c a s e s c i t e d b e lo w , th e l i t e r a t u r e i s
i n t h e J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n . However, t h e psychodynaraic
p ro b lem s would be e s s e n t i a l l y s i m i l a r i f th e l i t e r a t u r e w ere
H indu, T h e o s o p h ic a l o r E t h i c a l G u l t u r i s t .
Method o f p r o c e d u r e . There a r e two m ajor d i f f i c u l t i e s
i n a tt e m p t in g a stu d y o f t h i s k in d . F i r s t i s th e l a c k o f
p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s on w hich one may draw . The seco n d d i f f i
c u l t y i s th e l a c k o f any t r u l y a d e q u a te and f u l l y a c c e p t a b l e
5 K a rl M enn inger, " R e li g i o u s A p p l i c a t i o n s o f P s y c h i a t r y " ,
P a s t o r a l P sy ch o lo g y V o l . l , N o .3, A p r i l , 1950. p . 17 .
8
method o f d e te r m in in g J u s t what psyohodynam ics a r e in v o lv e d
i n b e h a v io r . T here a r e s e r i o u s d is a g r e e m e n ts even among th e
schools of p sy c h o lo g y w hich t r y to d e a l w i t h p sy c h o d y n a m ic s,
i e . th e p s y c h o a n a l y ti c and th e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l. (See th e
f o llo w in g c h a p t e r f o r a d e f i n i t i o n o f "p h en o m e n o lo g ic al
s c h o o l , " ) Thus i t h a s been n e c e s s a r y , -almost a r b i t r a r i l y ,
to p i c k a p a r t i c u l a r p s y c h o l o g i c a l fram e o f r e f e r e n c â , and
t o t r y to f i t what d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e i n t o t h a t fram e . The
fram e ch o sen i s t h a t of- th e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l t h e o r y o f p e r
s o n a l i t y . However, i t h a s been n e c e s s a r y to in c lu d e a se c
t i o n from p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i n o r d e r n o t t o l o s e th e g r e a t con
t r i b u t i o n w hich t h a t s c h o o l can make to th e s o l u t i o n o f o u r
p ro b le m . A f t e r o u t l i n i n g th e fram e o f r e f e r e n c e , we s h a l l
t r y t o r e l a t e th e s p e c i f i c p ro blem o f th e use o f d e v o ti o n a l
l i t e r a t u r e to i t , and th e n t r y t o u n d e r s ta n d and e x p la in
th e few c a s e h i s t o r i e s in i t s te rm s . The c a s e s were s e c u re d
m o stly th ro u g h p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t s w ith th e i n d i v i d u a l s them
s e l v e s , w ith c lo s e f r i e n d s , o r w ith p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s t r e a t i n g
them . The so u rc e o f th e i n f o r m a tio n on each c a s e w i l l be
s t a t e d a t th e b e g in n in g o f i t s r e s p e c t i v e s e c t i o n .
CHAPTER I I
THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL FRAME OF REFERENCE
As n o t e d i n th e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r , dynamic p sy c h o lo g y
i s f a r from b e in g u n i f i e d i n any one th e o r y o f p e r s o n a l i t y .
However, p s y c h i a t r y i s more and more do m in ated by p sy c h o
a n a l y t i c t h e o r y , w h ereas c l i n i c a l p sy c h o lo g y seems to be
r a l l y i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y a ro u n d t h e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l fram e o f
r e f e r e n c e . I n o r d e r t h a t t h e stu d y may be u n i f i e d a ro u n d a
s i n g l e t h e o r y , i t h a s been n e c e s s a r y t o choose one o f t h e s e
t h e o r i e s a n d to t r y to r e f e r th e c a s e s to i t . The u se o f a
p a r t i c u l a r fram e a ls o may a llo w t h e r e a d e r to f i t o t h e r c a s e s
from h i s own e x p e r ie n c e i n t o a th e o r y w hich w i l l make them
more u n d e r s t a n d a b le . Only i n t h i s way can th e y ta k e on mean
in g and be d e a l t w ith c o n s t r u c t i v e l y and w i t h some m easure
o f c o n f i d e n c e .
The p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l’fram e was ch osen r a t h e r th a n th e
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c f o r a number o f r e a s o n s , th e m ost im p o r ta n t
b e in g t h a t i t i s s im p le r t o u n d e r s ta n d and t o e x p l a i n . F u r
t h e r m o r e , i t i s l e s s c o n t r o v e r s i a l , and i t i s a b le to con
t a i n most o f th e f a c t s w ith o u t to o much s t r a i n i n g and to o
many s p e c i a l e x p l a n a t i o n s . A lso , i t i s newer th a n p sy c h o
a n a l y s i s , and h a s no c r y s t a l l i z e d Judgm ents a b o u t r e l i g i o n
such a s a r e fo u n d i n some p s y c h o a n a l y t i c c i r c l e s . Some o f
10
t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l th e o r y i n r e l a t i o n
to o u r p ro b le m w i l l be m en tio n ed l a t e r on.
The p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l th e o r y o f p e r s o n a l i t y h a s grown
l a r g e l y o u t o f th e c l i n i c a l e x p e r ie n c e o f th e n o n - d i r e c t i v e
o r c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d sc h o o l o f p s y c h o th e r a p y . C a rl R. R og ers
i s g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n iz e d a s th e fo u n d e r o f t h i s s c h o o l, arid
t h e b a s i c m anual o f c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e i s h i s C o u n se lin g
and P s y c h o th e r a p y . An e a r l y and i n f l u e n t i a l book i n th e
d ev elo p m e n t o f th e th e o r y o f p e r s o n a l i t y c o rr e s p o n d in g to
t h i s th e r a p y was P# L e c k y 's S e l f C o n s i s te n c y . S in ce th e n
t h e r e have been a number o f j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s d e v e lo p in g th e
t h e o r y , m o stly by R o g e rs, b u t th e o n ly b o o k - l e n g t h s t a te m e n t
o f th e th e o r y i s a r e c e n t work by D onald Snygg and A r th u r W.
Combs e n t i t l e d I n d i v i d u a l B e h a v io r . A lth o u g h we s h a l l make
b r i e f r e f e r e n c e to one o f R o g e rs' a r t i c l e s , th e main so u rc e
o f t h i s b r i e f e x p o s i t i o n o f p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l p sy c h o lo g y w i l l
be th e Snygg and Combs boo k.
The p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l th e o ry o f p e r s o n a l i t y . A b a s i c
u n d e r ly in g a s su m p tio n o f t h i s th e o r y i s t h a t a l l b e h a v i o r
h a s m eaning. T h is m eaning c a n be u n d e r s to o d a c c o rd in g to
c e r t a i n la w s; th u s p s y c h o l o g i s t s s h o u ld e v e n t u a l l y be a b le
n o t o n ly to u n d e rs ta n d b u t to p r e d i c t a l l k in d s o f human
th o u g h t and a c t i v i t y .
A cco rd in g t o t h e s e a u t h o r s , a l l b e h a v io r i s d e t e r
1 1
m ined by what th e y c a l l th e phenom enal f i e l d .
By t h e phenom enal f i e l d we mean th e e n t i r e u n i v e r s e , i n
c lu d i n g h i m s e l f , a s i t i s e x p e r ie n c e d by th e i n d i v i d u a l
a t t h e i n s t a n t o f a c t i o n . . . . I t i s sim ply th e u n i
v e r s e o f n a iv e e x p e r ie n c e in w hich t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i v e s ,
th e every d ay s i t u a t i o n o f s e l f and s u r r o u n d in g s w hich
each p e rs o n t a k e s to be r e a l i t y * . . # t o th e i n d i v i d u a l
h i m s e l f h i s phenom enal f i e l d r e a l i t y , th e o n ly r e a l
i t y he Can know .I
The two b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s f i e l d a r e i t s f l u i d i t y ,
i t s c o n s t a n t ch an g e , and th e f a c t t h a t i t i s alw ays o r g a n i z
ed and m e a n in g fu l (assu m in g o f c o u rs e t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l i s
n o t s e r i o u s l y i l l m e n t a l l y ) * The phenom enal f i e l d i s o rg a n
i z e d and m a in ta in e d on th e b a s i s o f s e l e c t i o n by th e i n d i v i
d u a l . T h is s e l e c t i o n “i s c a r r i e d on by th e i n d i v i d u a l a s a
means o f s a t i s f y i n g h i s n e e d s , and i n c o n fo r m ity w i t h th e
e x i s t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n o f h i s phenom enal f i e l d . T h e b a s i c
p r i n c i p l e by w hich th e i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i z e s and adds to h i s
f i e l d o p e r a t e s a t a l l tim e s and w i t h r e s p e c t to b o th th e
i n n e r and o u t e r w o r ld s . F r e q u e n tly i n f l u e n c e s and e v e n t s ,
b o th i n n e r and o u t e r , a r e d i s t o r t e d o r even r e j e c t e d when
th ey do n o t f i t w i t h th e e x i s t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n ; and alw ays
th e y a re lo o k e d a t in te rm s o f th e m eaning g iv e n them by th e
e x i s t i n g phenom enal f i e l d .
F o r Snygg and Combs, th e word phenom enal means
1 D onald Snygg and A r th u r W. Combs, I n d i v i d u a l B e h a v io r
(New Y ork: H a rp e r & B r o t h e r s , 1949% 360 p p . 7 p . 15
2 I b i d . p . 23
12
e s s e n t i a l l y s u b j e c t i v e . When th e y t a l k o f t r y i n g to view b e
h a v i o r i n p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l te r m s , th e y mean sim ply t r y i n g to
see t h a t b e h a v io r th ro u g h t h e eye's o f th e b e h a v e r. They f e e l
t h a t o n ly a s th e s c i e n t i s t i s a b le to " f e e l h im s e l f i n t o "
th e t o t a l s i t u a t i o n o f th e b eh av er. can he f u l l y u n d e r s ta n d
and e x p l a i n h i s b e h a v i o r . The i d e a o f t r y i n g to see a s i t u a
t i o n from a n o t h e r 's p o i n t o f view i s f a r from new, o f c o u r s e ,
b u t th e a tte m p t t o make i t i n t o a s c i e n t i f i c th e o r y i s new,
and i t h a s a l r e a d y y i e l d e d f r u i t f u l r e s u l t s *
The b a s i c human n e e d . T here i s a s p e c i a l and h ig h ly
s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f th e phenom enal f i e l d w hich i s c a l l e d th e
phenom enal s e l f . T h is s e l f i s sim ply a l l th e a s p e c t s o f th e
phenom enal f i e l d w hich th e i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r ie n c e s a s a p a r t
o f h i m s e l f o r even a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h i m s e l f . T h is i n
c lu d e s more th a n th e p h y s i c a l body; i t may in c lu d e c l o t h e s ,
home, a u to m o b ile ; and most i m p o r t a n t , i t i n c l u d e s a l l o n e 's
e v a l u a t i o n s and d e f i n i t i o n s o f o n e s e l f — p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y ,
m o ra lly and s p i r i t u a l l y .
The phenom enal s e l f i s th e most p e rm a n en t p a r t o f th e
i n d i v i d u a l ' s phenom enal f i e l d and i s t h e p o i n t o f r e
f e r e n c e f o r h i s ev ery b e h a v i o r . The b a s i c need o f
ev ery o n e i s to p r e s e r v e and enhance th e phenom enal s e l f ,
and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a l l p a r t s o f th e f i e l d a r e
g o v e rn e d by t h i s n eed. The phenom enal s e l f i s so im por
t a n t in th e economy o f th e i n d i v i d u a l t h a t i t g i v e s
c o n t i n u i t y and c o n s i s t e n c y to h i s b e h a v i o r . ^
3 Ibid. p .7 8
13
The p h r a s e " to p r e s e r v e and enhance th e phenom enal s e l f "
i s a key one f o r o u r p u r p o s e s ; i t i s s a i d by t h e s e a u t h o r s
t o be th e b a s i c human n e e d , and most o f o u r e x p l a n a t i o n s o f
th e use o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e w i l l be made i n i t s te rm s .
The need f o r enhancem ent o f th e s e l f m ight a l s o be c a l l e d
t h e need f o r s e l f - e s t e e m o r f o r s e l f - r e s p e c t . The a lm o st
u n i v e r s a l d e s i r e f o r s o c i a l a p p ro v a l and a c c e p t a n c e i s
c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o i t .
The s e l f - c o n c e o t . P e rh a p s an even more i m p o r t a n t term
f o r o u r u se h e r e i s w hat R o g ers h a s c a l l e d th e s e l f - c o n c e p t .
By s e l f - c o n c e p t i s m eant t h a t r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d p o r t i o n o f
th e phenom enal f i e l d w h ich most c o n s t a n t l y and p o t e n t l y
a f f e c t s b e h a v io r* "The s e l f - c o n c e p t i n c l u d e s t h o s e p a r t s o f
th e phenom enal f i e l d w h ich th e i n d i v i d u a l h a s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
a s d e f i n i t e and f a i r l y s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h i m s e l f .
The s e l f - c o n c e p t i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d in m eaning to w hat o t h e r
p s y c h o l o g i s t s have c a l l e d t h e e g o -im ag e , and t h e e g o - i d e a l .
The s e l f - c o n c e p t i s slniply th e i n n e r image w hich t h e i n d i v i
d u a l h a s o f h i m s e l f on t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l , m oral and r e l i
g i o u s l e v e l . The e g o - i d e a l i s more e s p e c i a l l y t h e h i g h e s t
o r m ost i d e a l i z e d image an i n d i v i d u a l h a s o f h i m s e l f . I t i s
p a r t l y on th e l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n , b u t o f t e n i t i s a p o t e n t
4 Ibid: p. 112
14
f a c t o r i n b e h a v io r b e c a u se th e i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e iv e s o f him
s e l f a s h a v in g i n some se n se a t t a i n e d h i s e g o - i d e a l , o r a t
l e a s t on th e way to a t t a i n i n g i t . We s h a l l f i n d t h a t th e
s e l f - c o n c e p t i s o f c r u c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e in th e s e l e c t i o n
and use o f d e v o ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e .
T here a r e many p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o r o l l a r i e s to be drawn
from th e s e b a s i c c o n c e p ts . F or i n s t a n c e , i f we assume t h a t
t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t i s th e c o re o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y , th e n th e
c l o s e r a p e r c e p t i o n o r s tim u lu s comes i n c o n te n t o r meaning
t o th e s e l f - c o n c e p t , th e more v i v i d l y i t w i l l be e x p e rie n c e d .
T h is i s t r u e w h e th e r th e p e r c e p t i o n i s t h r e a t e n i n g o r s a t
i s f y i n g . The more c l o s e l y some p a r t o r a s p e c t o f o u r s e l f -
c o n c e p t i s r e l a t e d to som eth ing we r e a d , f o r i n s t a n c e , th e
more we w i l l be a f f e c t e d — o r t h e more " e g o -in v o lv e d " we
w i l l b e . F o r i n s t a n c e , i f in ray t h e o l o g i c a l r e a d i n g I come
a c r o s s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e a rg u m en ts o f th e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n
c h u rc h a b o u t th e two n a t u r e s o f C h r i s t , I am i n t e r e s t e d
o n ly from an academ ic p o i n t o f view and my s e l f - c o n c e p t i s
h a r d l y to u c h e d ; and I may have d i f f i c u l t y s t a y i n g awake. I f
I sh o u ld happen to come upon th e same a rg u m en t, how ever,
w here i t c ro p p e d up i n . t h e c u r r e n t t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o v e r s i e s
o f my own d e n o m in a tio n , I sh o u ld r e a d more c a r e f u l l y ; I
m ig ht have to d e fe n d my own i d e a o f C h r i s t to my a s s o c i a t e s
4 Ibid. p. 112
15
o r a t l e a s t to m y se lf. I f f i n a l l y I should happen to ru n
a c r o s s a p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e x p e r ie n c e o f t h e
" i n n e r C h r i s t " w hich e x a c t l y d e s c rib e d ,m y own, and w hich
t h e n went on to draw some c o n c l u s i o n s w hich would t h r e a t e n
a b a s i c a s p e c t o f my " i n n e r W e lta n s c h a u u n g ," I w ould f e e l
v e ry i n s e c u r e and m ight even r e f u s e to f i n i s h r e a d i n g th e
book. At t h a t p o i n t , th e v e ry c o re o f my phenom enal s e l f
w ould have been t h r e a t e n e d .
A c co rd in g to C a rl R o g e rs^ , a l l p e r c e p t i o n s f a l l
r o u g h ly i n t o t h r e e c l a s s e s , so f a r a s t h e i r f a t e i s
c o n c e rn e d :
1) They a re r e l a t e d p o s i t i v e l y to t h e p r e s e n t s e l f -
cep t , and th u s a r e o r g a n iz e d i n t o i t ;
2) They a r e ig n o re d b e cau se th e y a r e i r r e l e v a n t to
th e p r e s e n t s e l f - c o n c e p t ;
3 ) They a re d e n ie d to c o n s c io u s a w aren ess b e ca u se
th e y a re i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e s e l f - c o n c e p t (w hat
t h e p s y c h o a n a l y s t s c a l l r e p r e s s i o n , p r o j e c t i o n , e t c , )
Snygg and Combs go on t o t r y to e x p l a i n in p h e n o m e n o lo g ic al
te rm s many o f th e d e fe n s e mechanisms d i s c o v e r e d by p sy c h o
a n a l y s i s . One o f th e most s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h i s stu d y i s th e
v e ry common mechanism o f r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n .
5 C a rl R. R o g e rs, A C om prehensive Theory o f P e r s o n a l i t y
and B e h a v io r (Mimeographed o n ly . U n i v e r s i t y o f C h icag o.
No d a t e . )
16
R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n a p p e a rs to be th e d i r e c t o u tg ro w th o f
t h e s e l e c t i o n im posed upon p e r c e p t i o n s by th e phenomenal
s e l f . . . . The dynam ics a p p e a r to o p e r a t e somewhat a s
f o llo w s : The i n d i v i d u a l b eh av es in te rm s o f h i s phenome
n a l f i e l d and, in p a r t i c u l a r , in te rm s o f h i s phenom enal
s e l f . A c tin g i n te rm s o f one a s p e c t o f th e phenom enal
s e l f , how ever, som etim es l e a d s him i n t o b e h a v io r a n ta g o n
i s t i c t o a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f s e l f . T h is i s a t h r e a t e n i n g
s i t u a t i o n and must be d e a l t w ith i n some f a s h i o n . Being
u n a b le t o a c c e p t th e t h r e a t e n i n g c o n c e p t, t h e s i t u a t i o n
may be p e r c e i v e d as c o n s i s t e n t w ith t h e s e l f by s e l e c t
in g th o s e a s p e c t s w hich a re s e l f - e n h a n c i n g and ig n o r in g
t h o s e w hich a re n o t . He f i n d s "good" r e a s o n s f o r th e
" r e a l " r e a s o n s f o r h i s b e h a v i o r * 5
S o c i a l a s p e c t s . So f a r o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f phenom enolog
i c a l p sy c h o lo g y h a s seemed to make i t l a r g e l y i n d i v i d u a l -
c e n t e r e d . U n f o r t u n a t e ly t h i s i s t r u e ; t h e r e i s a r a t h e r
in a d e q u a te t r e a tm e n t o f s o c i a l p sy c h o lo g y — i n a d e q u a te ,
t h a t i s , b e c a u se i t i s t r e a t e d e x c l u s i v e l y from th e s ta n d
p o i n t o f i n d i v i d u a l p sy c h o lo g y . The f o llo w in g q u o t a t i o n ,
how ever, may p r o v id e th e b a s i s on w hich p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l
p sy c h o lo g y c o u ld be expanded beyond i t s p r e s e n t n a rro w ly
i n d i v i d u a l sc o p e.
A s o c i a l b e in g must n e c e s s a r i l y a d j u s t to th e demands -
o f s o c i e t y o r remove h i m s e l f from i t . I f he i d e n t i f i e s
h i m s e l f w i t h s o c i e t y , he c a n n o t deny i t f o r to do t h a t
i s to deny h i m s e l f . S in c e he l i v e s in and i s d ep en d en t
upon s o c i e t y f o r h i s w e l f a r e , h i s own m ain te n a n c e and
enhancem ent w i l l l e a d to t h a t o f t h e members o f s o c i e t y
a s w e l l . . .
The i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s s ta te m e n t i s t h a t th e phenomenal
6 Snygg and Combs, o n . c i t . p . 1 5 5 f
7 I b i d . p . 140 [U n d e rlin in g m in e ]
1 7
s e l f c o u ld be expanded to in c l u d e o t h e r s , ' and p o s s i b l y
e v e n t u a l l y a l l o f s o c i e t y . More r e a l i s t i c a l l y , i t m ight be
p o s s i b l e to say t h a t ^ tim e s ( i n tim e s o f g r e a t m ag n an im ity ,
o r o f g r e a t i n s p i r a t i o n o r b r e a d t h o f v i s i o h , f o r exam ple)
t h e phenom enal s e l f i s expand ed to ta k e i n more th a n what
we know a s ego; and in th e r a r e e x p e r ie n c e o f th e m y s t i c 's
v i s i o n , th e phenomenal s e l f would be c o - e x t e n s i v e w ith a l l
o f r e a l i t y . However t h i s view i s n o t d e v e lo p e d by t h e au
t h o r s , and i t would be beyond th e scope o f t h i s t h e s i s to
u se t h e th e o ry in t h i s i n c l u s i v e s e n s e .
An i n d i v i d u a l s e l e c t s from any g iv e n o b j e c t i v e s i t
u a t i o n th o s e a s p e c t s w hich w i l l s e rv e him i n h i s a tt e m p t to
" m a in ta in and enhance h i s phenom enal s e l f . " T h is i s th e key
i d e a w hich w i l l be o f most u se t o u s i n o u r stu d y o f devo
t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . However, b e f o r e l e a v in g t h i s o u t l i n e o f
Snygg and Combs* t h e o r y , l e t us t r y to s t a t e what th e y f e e l
i s t h e c o n d i t i o n o f m en tal h e a l t h , o r o f c r e a t i v e p s y c h o lo g
i c a l a d ju s tm e n t. I n g e n e r a l , an i n d i v i d u a l i s m e n ta lly
h e a l t h y when he h a s a phenom enal s e l f w hich can a c c e p t and
i n t e g r a t e i n t o i t s e l f most o r a l l o f th e o u t e r and i n n e r
s t i m u l i w hich p la y upon i t — in o t h e r w ords, when t h e r e i s
a minimum o f r e p r e s s i o n , p r o j e c t i o n , r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , e t c .
T h is im p l i e s a b ro a d and r e a l i s t i c s e l f - c o n c e p t , and th e
i n n e r s e c u r i t y to come t o te rm s w ith w h a te v e r e x p e r i e n c e s
l i f e b r i n g s . Such a phenom enal s e l f w i l l in g e n e r a l
18
e x p e r ie n c e l i f e more f u l l y and s a t i s f y i n g l y a n d , a s R ogers
p o i n t s o u t , be a b le to b u i l d more l a s t i n g and c r e a t i v e human
r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
When an i n d i v i d u a l a c c e p t s i n t o one c o n s i s t e n t and i n t e
g r a t e d sy stem a l l o f h i s p e r c e p t i o n s , th e n he i s n e c e s
s a r i l y more u n d e r s ta n d in g o f o t h e r s and i s more a c c e p t
in g o f o t h e r s a s s e p a r a t e i n d i v i d u a l s . ®
In o t h e r w ords, a s e l f - a c c e p t i n g a t t i t u d e h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s
w hich e x te n d beyond th e i n d i v i d u a l h i m s e l f — such an a t t i
t u d e , i n a llo w in g him to e x p e r ie n c e more c o m p le te ly a l l
s i d e s o f h i s own n a t u r e , makes him more a p p r e c i a t i v e o f a
l a r g e r v a r i e t y o f o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s a s w e l l .
In t h i s c h a p t e r , we have t r i e d to s t a t e th e r e a s o n s
f o r ch o o sin g a p a r t i c u l a r fram e o f r e f e r e n c e , and th e n e c e s
s i t y f o r o u t l i n i n g th e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f t h a t fram e. T h is
was fo llo w e d by a b r i e f s ta te m e n t o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s alo n g
w ith d e f i n i t i o n s o f th e l e a d i n g c o n c e p ts o f t h e th e o r y . I t
s h o u ld be c l e a r t h a t t h i s i s a very s k e tc h y o u t l i n e , and.
t h a t many m a t t e r s o f im p o rtan c e have b een o m it t e d . A lso we
have te n d e d to s e l e c t th o s e a s p e c t s o f th e th e o r y w hich a re
most h e l p f u l in t r y i n g to e x p l a i n t h e dynam ics o f th e use
o f d e v o ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . I n th e n e x t c h a p t e r a more s p e c i
f i c a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s th e o r y w i l l be a tte m p te d *
8 R o g e rs , op. c i t .
C H A P T E R III
PSYCHODYNAMIC FACTORS
IN THE USE OF DEVOTIONAL LITERATURE
O sk ar P f i s t e r i s a Sw iss p a s t o r who many y e a r s ago
saw a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een F re u d ia n p sy c h o lo g y and th e work
o f t h e C h r i s t i a n m i n i s t e r , and e v e r s i n c e he h a s b e en t r y i n g
t o come to g r i p s w ith t h e b e a r i n g o f eac h on th e o t h e r . He
h a s t h i s to say abou t o u r p r e s e n t s u b j e c t :
R e l i g i o u s t r u t h s a r e n o t a c c e p te d o r r e j e c t e d s o l e l y in
a c c o rd a n c e w ith t h e i r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l and l o g i c a l con
t e n t . . . . R a th e r th e y a re a c c e p te d in te rm s o f th e
i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e (w hich) i s d e te rm in e d by n e ed s
r e s u l t i n g from h i s e x p e r i e n c e , r e p r e s s i o n s , and d e s i r e s . I
We s h a l l ta k e t h i s b a s i c i d e a a s our theme and f o l l o w i t
th r o u g h , f i r s t in term s o f p h e n o m e n o lo g ic al p s y c h o lo g y , and
th e n i n term s o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . A lth o u g h th e c a s e s w hich
f o l l o w in th e n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l be d e a l t w ith in term s o f
t h e p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r , i t w ould be im p o s s ib le to w r i t e a
t h e s i s on t h i s s u b j e c t w i th o u t i n c l u d i n g some r e f e r e n c e s to
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c d i s c o v e r i e s .
I WITHIN THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL FRAME OF REFERENCE
D e v o tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e as t h r e a t o r s a t i s f a c t i o n . F i r s t
1 O sk ar P f i s t e r , C h r i s t i a n i t y and F e a r : A Study i n H is to r y
and i n th e Psycho log y and Hygiene- of R e li g i o n (M a c M illa n ),
c i t e d by Wayne E. G a te s in a re v ie w in P a s t o r a l P s y c h o l
o g y . V ol. 1, No. 1, F e b r u a r y , 1950.
20
o f a l l , we may s a f e l y say tiaat d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e , w i l l have
th e same f a t e a s any o t h e r e x t e r n a l s t i m u l i which a f f e c t th e
phenom enal s e l f ; i t w i l l be a p p r o p r i a t e d , d i s r e g a r d e d , o r r e
j e c t e d on th e b a s i s o f th e c u r r e n t n e ed s and g o a l s o f th e '
I n d i v i d u a l . I f th e l i t e r a t u r e i n some way c o n t r i b u t e s tow ard
t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n and enhancem ent o f th e s e l f , i t w i l l be
g l a d l y r e a d and i t s a d v ic e p e rh a p s f o llo w e d . I f t h e meaning
o f th e l i t e r a t u r e i n no way im p in g es upon th e s e l f - c o n c e p t
o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , i t w i l l p r o b a b ly be p a s s e d o v e r a s o f
l i t t l e p e r s o n a l w o rth ; i t may be r e a d , p e rh a p s w i t h a k in d
o f d e ta c h e d i n t e r e s t , b u t i t w i l l have no r e a l e f f e c t on t h e
l i f e o f th e r e a d e r . I f t h e i d e a s and f e e l i n g s o f th e l i t e r a
t u r e i n some way c o n s t i t u t e a t h r e a t to th e i n d i v i d u a l , i t
w i l l p ro b a b ly be shunned a s “h e r e t i c a l ” , “u n r e a l i s t i c ” ,
“m a t e r i a l i s t i c ” e t c . Some t y p e s o f p e r s o n s , how ever, r e a c t
to a t h r e a t a s a k in d o f c h a l l e n g e , and may f i n d th e m s e lv e s
c o m p e lle d to r e a d l i t e r a t u r e th ey d o n 't l i k e j u s t t o f i n d
i t s weak p o i n t s , and t h u s t o b o l s t e r t h e i r c h a lle n g e d a t t i
t u d e s . In t h e s e c a s e s , how ever, we c o u ld h a r d ly say t h a t t h e
l i t e r a t u r e was b e in g u se d “d e v o t i o n a l l y . “ Snygg and Combs
c a l l s t h i s use o f an o u t e r s t i m u l u s t h e p u rs u in g o f a “n e g a
t i v e g o a l , ” and c i t e s t h i s example from e d u c a ti o n a l
p s y c h o lo g y :
. . . m a t e r i a l f o r c e d upon s t u d e n t s w ith o u t c o n s i d e r a
t i o n o f t h e i r p r e s e n t n e ed and im m ediate g o a ls t e n d s to
21
a c q u ir e a meaning w hich makes i t l e s s u s e f u l in th e s a t
i s f a c t i o n o f need th a n i f i t had n e v e r been s t u d i e d .
S in c e i t does n o t a s s i s t th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f n e e d , i t s
i n t r u s i o n i n t o th e f i e l d sim ply c r e a t e s a d d i t i o n a l d i f
f i c u l t y f o r t h e s t u d e n t . The demand t h a t he abandon h i s
c u r r e n t p ro b lem s and t u r n to t h e stu d y o f th e r e q u i r e d
m a t e r i a l i s p r e t t y s u r e to c au se him to r e g a r d t h e m at
e r i a l a s an o b s t a c l e t o s e lf - e n h a n c e m e n t, a s som ething
to be a v o id e d , a n e g a t i v e g o a l* *
In g e n e r a l how ever we may say t h a t th e r e a d e r s o f
d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e f i n d i t a s a t i s f y i n g o r e n h an c in g
s t i m u l i r a t h e r th a n a t h r e a t e n i n g o ne, and we s h a l l d e a l
w i t h i t in t h a t se n se i n t h i s s tu d y .
There a r e s e v e r a l ways in w hich d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e
d i f f e r s from o t h e r s t i m u l i in i t s e f f e c t s on th e phenom enal
s e l f . I t i s g e n e r a l l y o p e r a t i v e in th e l i f e o f th e i n d i v i
d u a l o v e r a lo n g p e r i o d o f tim e ; t h u s i t s use i s o f t e n more
d e p e n d e n t on th e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r s t r u c t u r e th a n b r i e f p a s s
in g s t i m u l i , and i n t u r n i t s e f f e c t on t h a t s t r u c t u r e i s
som etim es more deep and l a s t i n g . We c o u ld a l s o say t h a t in
th e i n t e r a c t i o n i t i s th e h i g h e r l e v e l s o f th e s e l f w hich
a r e most c o n c e rn e d . T h at i s , i t i s most o f t e n th e s e l f - c o n
c e p t r a t h e r th a n th e p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
w h ich i s in v o lv e d , and, w i t h i n th e s e l f - c o n c e p t , t h e eg o-
i d e a l i s q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y o f g r e a t e s t im p o rta n c e . In o t h e r
w o rd s , i t i s th e h i g h e s t a s p i r a t i o n s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l
w h ich d e te rm in e h i s use o f d e v o ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e , and i t i s
Snygg and Combs, on . c i t . p p . 2 lO f.
22
h i s n eed f o r s e l f - r e s p e c t and s e l f - e s t e e m r a t h e r th a n
sim ply h i s p h y s i c a l s u r v i v a l w hich i s th e p rim a ry m o ti v a t
in g f a c t o r .
W ith ^ r e s t r i c t e d s e l f - c o n c e n t . W ithout g e t t i n g i n t o
an e x te n d e d d i s c u s s i o n o f th e p l a c e o f v a lu e s in dynamic
p s y c h o lo g y , i t i s p o s s i b l e to say b r i e f l y what th e phenomen-r
o l o g i s t s would d e s i g n a t e a s n e g a t iv e o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e u se
o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . T h is o f c o u rs e can be r e a d i l y
su rm ise d from th e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r . Whenever an i n d i v i d u a l
u s e s som ething a s a means o f b o l s t e r i n g o r c r y s t a l l i z i n g a
n a rro w o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e s e l f - c o n c e p t , hé i s u s in g i t nega^
t i v e l y . Whenever he s e l e c t s o r d i s t o r t s h i s p e r c e p t i o n s so
t h a t th e y p e r p e t u a t e a phenom enal s e l f w hich i s n o t i n c l u
s i v e , he i s w orking a g a i n s t h i s own b e s t i n t e r e s t s ; he i s
n o t i n a s t a t e o f t r u e m en tal h e a l t h . I t sh o u ld be c l e a r
from p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n w hat we mean by an i n c l u s i v e s e l f -
c o n c e p t and w hat i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e i n term s o f s a t i s f y i n g
l i f e - e x p e r i e n c e s . However, t h e r e i s a l s o an i n a p o r o o r i a t e
k i n d o f s e l f - c o n c e p t w hich can be a s damaging a s a m erely
r e s t r i c t e d one. An o b v io u s example o f t h i s i s a h i g h ly sen
s i t i v e g i r l , known to th e w r i t e r , who was r a i s e d in a
f a m ily o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s and s o c i a l e x t r a v e r t s. The p ro b lem
h e r e was n o t o n ly t h a t h e r s e l f - c o n c e p t was l i m i t e d to th e
one w hich h e r fa m ily h e l d o f h e r (w hich she had ta k e n o v e r
23
c o m p l e t e ly ) , b u t t h a t i t was h i g h ly i n a p p r o p r i a t e — i t
seemed to be p r e c i s e l y th e o p p o s i t e o f th e one w hich h e r
tem peram ent demanded* F r e q u e n t l y , d e v o t i o n a l r e a d in g seems
to have f o s t e r e d t h i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e k in d o f e g o - i d e a l * ^
W ith an i n c l u s i v e s e l f - c o n c e o t . I t i s o b v io u s from
th e above w hat i s c o n s i d e r e d p o s i t i v e e x p e r ie n c e by th e
p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s . C a rl R ogers sa y s i t w e ll:
The g r e a t e s t v a lu e s f o r th e enhancem ent o f t h e o rg an ism
a c c ru e when a l l e x p e r ie n c e s and a l l a t t i t u d e s a re p e r
m i t t e d c o n s c io u s s y m b o liz a tio n , and when b e h a v io r b e
comes t h e m ea n in g fu l s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a l l n e e d s , th e s e
n e ed s b e in g a v a i l a b l e to c o n s c io u s n e s s .'^
I n o t h e r w o rd s, th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a l l n e e d s i s th e i d e a l ,
and t h i s i d e a l comes n e a r e s t to f u l f i l l m e n t when th e s e l f -
c o n c e p t i s most i n c l u s i v e . Thus a p o s i t i v e dynamic u se i s
t h e one w hich w orks to t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f l e g i t i m a t e h e ed s
w i t h i n th e fram ew ork o f a b ro a d s e l f - c o n c e p t .
However, th e t h o u g h t f u l p e r s o n may c h a rg e t h a t t h i s
norm i s u l t i m a t e l y an e g o c e n tr i c one, and may m a in ta in t h a t
t h e r e a r e l e g i t i m a t e g o a ls beyond th o s e o f th e n e ed s o f th e
o rg an ism . L e t us examine b r i e f l y some o t h e r t h e o r i e s w hich
a r e more s a t i s f a c t o r y a t t h i s p o i n t .
3 An i n a p p r o p r i a t e s e l f - c o n c e p t i s o f c o u r s e a r e s t r i c t e d
o n e , b u t th e d i s t i n c t i o n seems v a l i d enough and h e l p f u l
enough to p o i n t o u t , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t .
4 R o g e rs, op», c i t .
24
I I WITHIN A “SUPER-INDIVIDUAL” ORIENTATION
A ndras Angyal h a s w r i t t e n an e x tre m e ly p r o v o c a t i v e
book in w hich he t r i e s t o o u t l i n e a c o m p reh en siv e th e o r y o f
p e r s o n a l i t y from th e “h o l i s t i c " p o i n t o f view .^ I n s t e a d o f
p o s i t i n g one fu n d a m e n ta l l i f e urge w hich sh o u ld e x p l a i n a l l
o f human b e h a v i o r , he p o s i t s two. The f i r s t o f t h e s e b a s i c
l i f e u rg e s o r t r e n d s i s i n some ways p a r a l l e l to th e p hen
o m e n o lo g ic a l “p r e s e r v a t i o n and enhancem ent o f th e s e l f . ”
The o t h e r , how ever, w hich he c a l l s th e “t r e n d tow ard homon-
om y,” h a s no p a r a l l e l i n th e o t h e r a p p ro a c h , and in some
ways s u p p l i e s th e a d d i t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e o f e x p l a n a t i o n which
we n e ed . The f o llo w in g two q u o t a t i o n s show c l e a r l y how
A ngyal t r i e s to go beyond th e Snygg and Combs p o i n t o f view ;
th e y d e f i n e what he means by homonomy:
Thus f a r we have d i s c u s s e d th e b i o l o g i c a l t o t a l p r o c e s s
from a r a t h e r s o l i p s i s t i c p o i n t o f view . We have con
s i d e r e d th e i n d i v i d u a l org an ism as i f i t were s ta n d in g
a lo n e i n t h e w o rld f a c i n g i t s e n v iro n m e n t. . . . The
p i c t u r e th u s o b t a i n e d shows, how ever, o n ly one a s p e c t
o f l i v i n g . I n o r d e r to p e n e t r a t e d e e p e r i n t o th e p ro b lem
o f p e r s o n a l i t y we must go beyond a p u r e l y i n d i v i d u a l i s
t i c p o i n t o f view and c o n s i d e r th e p ro b lem o f th e i n t e
g r a t i o n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l i n t o s u p e r i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s . ^
W hile th e t r e n d tow ard i n c r e a s e d autonomy fth e i n d i v i
d u a l - c e n t e r e d b a s i c needj aims a t th e d o m in a tio n o f th e
s u r r o u n d in g s , th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t t i t u d e to w ard s u p e r
i n d i v i d u a l w holes i s r a t h e r a k in d o f subm erging o r sub
o r d i n a t i o n o f o n e 's i n d i v i d u a l i t y in th e s e r v i c e o f
s u p e r i n d i v i d u a l g o a l s . In t h i s l a t t e r t r e n d a p e r s o n
Andras A ngyal, F o u n d a tio n s f o r a S c ien c e o f P e r s o n a l i t y
(New York: The Commonwealth Fund, 1 9 4 1 /7 p . 167
25
s e e k s u n io n w ith l a r g e r u n i t s and w ish e s to sh a re and
p a r t i c i p a t e in som ething w hich he r e g a r d s a s b e in g
g r e a t e r th a n h i s i n d i v i d u a l s e l f . . . # For t h i s p r i n
c i p l e we p ro p o s e th e term “t r e n d tow ard homonomy” . t h a t
i s , a t r e n d to be i n harmony w i t h s u p e r i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s ,
t h e s o c i a l g ro u p , n a t u r e , G-od, e t h i c a l w o rld o r d e r , o r
w h a te v e r th e p e r s o n 's f o r m u la ti o n o f i t may be*^
Angyal g o es on to d e v e lo p t h i s theme more f u l l y , b u t t h e r e
i s a lm o st n o th in g o f an e x p e r im e n ta l o r c l i n i c a l n a t u r e to
s u b s t a n t i a t e and e l a b o r a t e i t . However, i n te rm s o f w hat we
know g e n e r a l l y a b o u t human n a t u r e , and a ls o i n th e more
t h e o r e t i c a l term s o f th e h o l i s t i c fram e o f r e f e r e n c e , th e
p o s t u l a t i n g o f t h i s b a s i c t r e n d h a s much to s u p p o rt i t . I t
i s a l s o s u p p o r te d by o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i s t s w r i t i n g from o t h e r
p o i n t s o f v iew . These words from Gordon A l l p o r t c e r t a i n l y
f i t c l o s e l y w ith A ngyal*s th e o r y :
F a i t h i s b a s i c a l l y man*s b e l i e f i n th e v a l i d i t y and
a t t a i n a b i l i t y o f some g o a l ( v a l u e ) . The g o a l i s s e t by
d e s i r e s . D e s i r e s , how ever, a re n o t m erely p u s h e s from
b e h in d ( d r i v e - r i d d e n ) * They i n c l u d e such complex
f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d s t a t e s a s lo n g in g f o r a b e t t e r w o rld ,
f o r o n e 's own p e r f e c t i o n , „ f o r a c o m p le te ly s a t i s f y i n g
r e l a t i o n to th e u n i v e r s e .
A m an 's r e l i g i o n ; . . . i s h i s u l t i m a t e a tte m p t to en
l a r g e and to co m p lete h i s oi^m p e r s o n a l i t y by f i n d i n g
th e supreme c o n te x t in w hich he r i g h t l y b e l o n g s . &
A l l p o r t a l s o p a r a p h r a s e s f a v o r a b ly a E uropean p s y c h o l o g i s t ,
Spr a n g e r:
6 I b i d . o . 172
7 Gordon W. A l l p o r t , The I n d i v i d u a l and H is R e l i g i o n
(New York: M acM illan G o ., 1 9 5 0 ) . pp. 130f.
8 I b i d . p . 142
26
S p ra n g e r a t t e m p t s to i d e n t i f y s u b j e c t i v e r e l i g i o n w ith
th e lo n g in g f o r u n i t y — c o m p lete u n i t y o f th o u g h t,
f e e l i n g , and d e ed . . . . th e r e l i g i o u s i n t e n t i o n . . .
r e p r e s e n t s a, d e s i r e f o r t o t a l harm o ny. m eaning th e r e b y
th e i n d iv i d u a l* s s u c c e s s iv e e f f o r t s to c o m p lete th e
i n c o m p le te , to p e r f e c t th e i m p e r f e c t , to c o n s e r v e a l l
v a l u e s , e l i m i n a t e a l l d i s v a l u e s , to f i n d perm anence in
t h e p l a c e o f t r a n s i t o r i n e s s . From t h i s p o i n t o f view ,
th e e s s e n c e o f r e l i g i o u s v a lu e can be fo u n d o n ly i n th e
m y s t i c a l g o a l o f o n e n e s s .^
I t i s p r o b a b le t h a t a s p sy c h o lo g y a t t e m p t s more and
more to come to g r i p s w i t h t h e s e h i g h e r r e a c h e s o f human
e x p e r i e n c e , i t w i l l te n d to s u b s t a n t i a t e some such b a s i c
t r e n d a s Angyal h a s p o s t u l a t e d . Assuming t h e e x i s t e n c e o f
su ch a t r e n d , we c o u ld say t h a t th e norm al and p r o p e r f u n c
t i o n o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e i s t o d i s c o v e r and r e i n f o r c e
i t i n th e l i f e o f th e r e l i g i o u s s e e k e r . I n te rm s o f i t s co n
t e n t , a l l d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e s e e k s to r e l a t e t h e r e a d e r
t o “ s u p e r i n d i v i d u a l w h o l e s , ” p a r t i c u l a r l y to God. Thus even
f o r t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who use such l i t e r a t u r e i n a n e u r o t i c
o r e g o c e n t r i c way, th e o s t e n s i b l e aim i s t h e a ch iev e m e n t o f
“homonomy” ; and i n many o r most c a s e s th e i n d i v i d u a l a c t u a l
l y f e e l s he i s a c h ie v in g g r e a t e r “homonomy.” Thus th e d i f
f i c u l t i e s o f even th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y - t r a i n e d o b s e r v e r to
s e p a r a t e n e u r o t i c u se from p r o p e r use a r e v e ry g r e a t .
The “t r e n d to w a rd homonomy,” t h e n , i s a h i g h ly u s e f u l
c o n c e p t f o r t h i s s tu d y . However a lt h o u g h t h e r e seems to be
9 Ibid. p. 132
27
enough e v id e n c e o f i t s v a l i d i t y f o r us to use i t a t c e r
t a i n p o i n t s , we know so l i t t l e a b o u t th e more- s p e c i f i c dy
nam ics w hich would be subsumed u n d e r i t t h a t i t s g e n e r a l
use m ight be somewhat s p e c u l a ti v e *
U n f o r t u n a t e ly th e v e r d i c t o f th e p re c e d in g s ta te m e n t
w ould seem to ap p ly to n e a r l y a l l g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h e o r i e s
o f p e r s o n a l i t y when th e y g e t beyond th e n e u r o t i c o r th e
j
m e re ly “w e l l - a d j u s t e d ” l e v e l s * F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e r e i s
v e ry l i t t l e to go on in t r y i n g t o f e r r e t o u t t h e p sy c h o
dynam ics o f th e use o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e when i t i s
u s e d i n a c r e a t i v e and v a l i d l y i n s p i r a t i o n a l way. One q u ic k
l y f i n d s h i m s e l f i n th e re a lm o f s p e c u l a t i o n when he t r i e s
t o p o s i t psychodynam ics i n c a s e s o f r e l i g i o u s g ro w th beyond
t h e norm al o r th e u su al*
For t h i s r e a s o n , and a l s o b e c a u se o f th e f a c t t h a t
m ost o f th e c a s e s known t o th e w r i t e r w ere i l l u s t r a t i v e
more o f th e n e u r o t i c th a n th e c r e a t i v e use o f d e v o t i o n a l
w r i t i n g s , t h i s t h e s i s w i l l d e a l l a r g e l y w i t h th e fo rm e r.
I t i s sa d b u t t r u e t h a t one f e e l s on much s a f e r g ro u n d i n
d e a l i n g w i t h th e dynam ics o f th e " a b n o rm a l” th a n o f th e
“n o rm a l” o r th e “s u p e r n o r m a l” i n t h e s e days o f th e y o u th
o f t h e s c ie n c e o f p s y c h o l o g y .! ^
10 F o r a n o th e r th e o r y o f b e h a v io r w hich may have p o t e n
t i a l i t i e s i n e x p l a i n i n g “ s u p e rn o rm a l” i n d i v i d u a l s , see
K urt G o l d s t e i n , Human N a tu re ( C a m b rid g e ,M a s s.: H a rv ard
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 0 ). See e s p e c i a l l y p p . 1 3 9 -4 9 .
28
Psycho dynam ics d e te r m in e d by t h e t o t a l s i t u a t i o n .
B e fo re l e a v i n g t h i s s u b j e c t we s h o u ld em phasize th e f a c t
t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f th e r e s p o n s e w h ich th e i n d i v i d u a l g i v e s
to d e v o t i o n a l r e a d in g i s n o t d e te r m in e d s o l e l y by th e con
te n d o f th e l i t e r a t u r e ; i t i s d e te r m in e d by th e t o t a l s i t u a
t i o n , i n w h ich th e c o n te n t o f th e m a t e r i a l i s o n ly one f a c
t o r , a l b e i t o f t e n th e most im p o r ta n t o n e. There can be o t h e r
f a c t o r s w hich i n some c a s e s o u tw e ig h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f th e
c o n t e n t . One o f t h e s e i s th e a t t i t u d e to w a rd th e p e r s o n who
recommends t h e book. The book may be r e a d th ro u g h s o l e l y b e
c a u se th e judgm ent o f t h e recommander i s so h i g h ly r e s p e c t e d
by th e r e a d e r . O r, i t may be r e a d s o l e l y b e c a u se th e r e a d e r
n e e d s t h e a p p ro v a l o r p r o t e c t i o n o f th e p e r s o n who s u g g e s te d
i t . A n o th er f a c t o r may be th e m eaning t o th e i n d i v i d u a l
sim p ly o f owning and r e a d i n g a “r e l i g i o u s d e v o ti o n a l b o o k ,“
w i t h l i t t l e o r no r e g a r d to th e s p e c i f i c c o n te n t o f one p a r
t i c u l a r book* Here a g a in we meet t h e pro b lem o f s e e in g th e
t o t a l s i t u a t i o n j u s t a s i t i s seen and e x p e r ie n c e d by th e
p e r s o n b e in g s t u d i e d . I f we a r e u n a b le to g e t some a p p ro x i
m ate i d e a o f h i s phenom enal f i e l d , we a r e su re to m iss im
p o r t a n t dynamic f a c t o r s .
The two p r e c e d in g s e c t i o n s o f t h i s c h a p t e r have
a tte m p te d to d e a l w ith p sy c hod ynam ics w i t h i n th e phenomeno-
loglCal fram e o f r e f e r e n c e , and w i t h i n o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l
fram ew orks where o u r ch o sen one seemed i n a d e q u a te . A c t u a l l y ,
29
th e most u s e f u l a tte m p t to e x p la in psycho dynam ics w i l l p r o b
a b ly be fou nd i n t h e c a s e s in C h a p te r IV, B e fo re t u r n i n g to
s p e c i f i c i l l u s t r a t i o n s , how ever, l e t us lo o k a t what l i g h t
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c th e o r y and p r a c t i c e can th ro w on o u r p ro b lem ,
I I I WITHIN THE PSYCHOANALYTIC FRAME OF REFERENCE
I t w ould n o t be u n f a i r t o say t h a t m ost o f what we
know o f psy chod ynam ics i s , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , a r e s u l t
o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Even Snygg and Combs, who
c e r t a i n l y disavow any h e lp from p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , f e l t i t
n e c e s s a r y i n t h e i r book to d e s c r i b e i n t h e i r term s th e b a s ic
p s y c h o l o g i c a l mechanisms ( r e g r e s s i o n , p r o j e c t i o n , compensa
t i o n e t c . ) , w hich were d i s c o v e r e d and d e s c r i b e d l a r g e l y by
p sy c h o a n a ly -tic psychology* A lso , i t i s o n ly i n p s y c h o a n a l y ti c
books and a r t i c l e s t h a t any s p e c i f i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e dy
nam ic m eanings o f r e a d i n g and th e use o f l i t e r a t u r e i s s e t
f o r t h . Thus i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t we d e a l a t l e a s t b r i e f l y
w i t h m a t e r i a l from p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , even th o u g h we do n o t
a tt e m p t t o r e i n t e r p r e t i t i n p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l te r m s ,
B i b l i o t h e r a p y . Of a c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f j o u r n a l
a r t i c l e s d e a l i n g w ith b i b l i o t h e r a p y , o n ly one d i s c u s s e d a t
any l e n g t h th e psychodynam ic f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d . Ü
11 W illia m C. M enninger, “B i b l i o t h e r a p y , “ B u l l e t i n o f th e
M enninger C l i n i c . 1 :2 6 3 -2 7 4 . V o l . 8, 1937*
30
( B i b l i o t h e r a p y i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l th e r a p y by means o f s e
l e c t e d r e a d in g a s s i g n e d to th e r e a d e r - p a t i e n t . ) The p sy c h o
l o g i c a l f a c t o r s o p e r a t i v e i n r e a d i n g , o u t l i n e d i n t h i s a r
t i c l e , were i n v e s t i g a t e d i n e x te n d e d e x p e rim e n tin g w ith
b i b l i o t h e r a p y a t th e M enninger C l i n i c a t Topeka, K ansas.
The w r i t e r i s an o u t s t a n d i n g p s y c h o a n a ly s t*
These f a c t o r s , w hich a r e d e s c r i b e d b elow , a p p ly to
r e a d i n g in g e n e r a l , i n c l u d i n g d e v o t i o n a l r e a d i n g .
1) I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith a c h a r a c t e r o r e x p e r ie n c e i n th e
book: th e p a t i e n t may th ro u g h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o b t a i n
a v i c a r i o u s s a t i s f a c t i o n from th e h e r o ' s s t r u g g l e o r
v i c t o r y ; o r he may be b o l s t e r e d i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t
o t h e r s have p ro b le m s s i m i l a r to h i s own ( e . g . , a
p a t i e n t i d e n t i f i e d h e r s e l f w ith u n a p p r e c i a t e d M arie
i n L u d w ig 's M arie A n t o i n e t t e ) . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n can
l i k e w i s e have n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s , a s f o r exam ple th e
s c h iz o p h r e n ic w o u ld -b e p o e t i c g e n iu s who c o l l e c t e d
Sw inburne and P ope, b u t had no i n t e n t i o n o f re a d in g
them; o r th e e x c i t a b l e , h y p e r - s e x u a l woman who de
manded sex s t o r i e s .
2) P r o j e c t i o n o f o n e 's own t r a i t s , e s p e c i a l l y bad o n e s,
upon c h a r a c t e r s i n th e s t o r y one i s r e a d i n g ; " b a d
p a r e n t s " and " u n f a i t h f u l p a r t n e r s " i n th e books
o f t e n c a r r y a trem en d o u s amount o f h o s t i l i t y from
th e r e a d e r . Thus f o r example one p a t i e n t i d e n t i f i e d
31
h e r h u sb an d a s B u t l e r in Gone w i t h th e W ind, and
th e n c o u ld p r o j e c t upon him w hat she w ish e d .
3 ) C om p arativ e s t a n d a r d s . w here s t a n d a r d s o r i d e a s a re
such t h a t th e p a t i e n t can a c c e p t o r a d o p t them f o r
h i s own Use. (Such p s y c h o l o g i c a l books a s O u t w i t ti n g
Our N erv es and D is c o v e r in g O u r s e lv e s som etim es p r o
v i d e d h e l p f u l new s t a n d a r d s . However, p s y c h o l o g i c a l
book s c an a ls o have d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s , when f o r
i n s t a n c e p a t i e n t s f i n d c o r r o b o r a t i o n o f t h e i r i n t r o
s p e c t i v e d o u b ts and f e a r s , o r when th e y f i n d s u p p o r t
f o r s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e o r a g g r e s s i v e t e n d e n c i e s . )
4 ) E g o c e n tr i c g r a t i f i c a t i o n ;
a) P a t i e n t s som etim es e sc a p e d t h e i r own c o n f l i c t s by
im m ersing th e m s e lv e s i n f a n t a s y ; t h i s would be
e s p e c i a l l y easy w i t h f i c t i o n a l r e a d i n g .
b) Some p a t i e n t s added to t h e i r se n se o f s e l f - i m p o r
ta n c e by r e c e i v i n g and r e a d i n g many n e w sp a p ers and
m a g a z in e s, o r sim ply by c o n t i n u a l l y a d d in g to t h e i r
fu n d o f knowledge ( T h is w ould be d e s i r a b l e i n th o s e
i n s t a n c e s i n w h ich i t p r e v e n t e d f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a
t i o n , o r where th e r e a d i n g meant m a i n t a i n in g some
c o n t a c t w ith r e a l i t y ) .
c) Some p a t i e n t s r e a d sim ply to g a in th e a p p ro v a l o f
t h e t h e r a p i s t o r p h y s i c i a n , o r to g a in g e n e r a l
32
s o c i a l a p p r o v a l . ! ^
To t h i s g e n e r a l o u t l i n e sh o u ld be added M e n n in g e r 'g comments
on r e l i g i o u s r e a d i n g . I n g e n e r a l , he s a y s , i t i s “d e tr im e n
t a l . “ I t i s p e r m i t t e d i n th e h o s p i t a l when i t i s n o t u sed
t o th e e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r r e a d in g and when i t i s n o t used
t o s u p p o rt d e l u s i o n a l t r e n d s . Many tim e s i t h a s b e en found
t h a t r e l i g i o u s r e a d in g i n c r e a s e s m e n ta l i l l n e s s . The B ib le
i s p r e s c r i b e d o n ly f o r e l d e r l y p e r s o n s f o r whom t h e B ib le
i s a n e c e s s a r y s u p p o rt and c o m p e n sa tio n .
P e rh a p s th e most im p o r ta n t t h in g we c an draw from t h i s
l a s t p a r a g r a p h i s some s e n s e o f t h e p o te n c y o f t h e B ib le
and o f r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e . I t c an be a trem en d o u s i n f l u
ence to w ard h e a l t h o r to w a rd i l l - h e a l t h . T hese c o n c lu s io n s
u n d e rs c o re one o f th e m ajo r t h e s e s o f t h i s s tu d y , nam ely,
t h a t g u id a n c e o r a ch eck o f some k in d by a se c o n d p e r s o n
i s n e ed ed i n th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s use o f s p i r i t u a l l i t e r a t u r e .
We s h a l l d e a l more f u l l y w i t h t h i s in t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r .
Com pulsive t h i n k i n g . In i t s g e n e r a l t h e o r y , p sy c h o
a n a l y s i s h a s s e v e r a l p r i n c i p l e s w hich may b e a r on t h i s
s tu d y . The two ite m s m en tio n e d her^e a r e ta k e n from The
P s y o h o a n a lv tic Theory o f N e u ro s is by O tto F e n i c h e l , th e
12 T h is p o i n t a p p l i e s w i t h e q u a l f o r c e to m i n i s t e r s and
r e l i g i o u s e d u c a to r s who occup y, w ith p h y s i c i a n s , p o s i
t i o n s o f r e s p e c t and a u t h o r i t y ; t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p and
a p p ro v a l i s a p o t e n t f o r c e in a l l t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
53
g r e a t s y s t e m a t i z e r o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .
Sin ce d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e f r e q u e n t l y d e a l s w ith i d e a s
w hich th e s c i e n t i s t w ould c o n s i d e r " a b s t r a c t ” and d i v o r c e d
from c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y , t h i s q u o t a t i o n on th e t h i n k i n g o f th e
c o m p u lsiv e n e u r o t i c p e rs o n may be r e l e v a n t .
. . . co m p u lsiv e t h i n k i n g i s a b s t r a c t t h i n k i n g . I s o l a t e d
from th e r e a l w o rld o f c o n c r e t e t h i n g s . Com pulsive
t h i n k i n g i s n o t o n ly a b s t r a c t , i t i s a l s o g e n e r a l , d i
r e c t e d tow ard s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n and c a t e g o r i z a t i o n ; i t i s
t h e o r e t i c a l i n s t e a d o f r e a l . The p a t i e n t s a r e i n t e r e s t e d
i n maps and i l l u s t r a t i o n s r a t h e r th a n i n c o u n t r i e s and
t h i n g s .
B u t i n a n o th e r r e s p e c t th e r e t r e a t from f e e l i n g to
t h i n k i n g , a s a r u l e , f a i l s . The c le a v a g e s and c o n t r a
d i c t i o n s t h a t p e rm e a te th e e m o tio n a l l i f e o f co m p u lsio n
n e u r o t i c s a re d i s p l a c e d to th e s e x u a l i z e d i n t e l l e c t u a l
p ro b le m s , r e s u l t i n g i n o b s e s s iv e b ro o d in g and d o u b t.
Doubt i s th e i n s t i n c t u a l c o n f l i c t d i s p l a c e d t o t h e i n
t e l l e c t u a l f i e l d . A p a t i e n t , lo o k in g a t a d o o r, was com
p e l l e d to spend much tim e b ro o d in g a b o u t t h e p ro b lem :
What i s th e main t h i n g , th e empty s p a c e , f i l l e d o u t by
, th e d o o r , o r th e s u b s t a n t i a l d o o r, f i l l i n g o u r t h e empty
sp ace? T h is " p h i l o s o p h i c a l ” p ro b le m c o v e re d th e o t h e r
d o u b t: What i s th e m ain t h i n g in s e x u a l i t y , woman o r
man? And t h i s a g a in m eant: What i s th e main t h i n g i n me,
f e m i n i n i t y o r m a s c u l i n i t y ? ! ^
We may o r may n o t a g re e w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n h e re t h a t t h i s
" p h i l o s o p h i c a l " p ro b lem was m erely a m a s c u l i n i t y - f e m i n i n i t y
c o n f l i c t . However, we m ust ta k e c o g n iz a n c e o f th e more gen
e r a l p r i n c i p l e t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l i d e a s and c o n f l i c t s , p a r t i
c u l a r l y w ith m e n ta lly u n h e a lth y i n d i v i d u a l s , a r e o f t e n th e
medium o r t h e mode o f e x p r e s s i o n o f d e e p e r i n s t i n c t u a l
13 O tto F e n i c h e l , P s v c h o a n a lv t i c Theory o f N e u r o s is (New
Y ork: W.W. N orton & C o ., 1 9 4 5 ). p . 297
34
c o n f l i c t s . O b s e s s iv e d o u b tin g , p a r t i c u l a r l y , h a s been
fo u n d to be p r e s e n t i n many c o m p u lsiv e i n d i v i d u a l s , and
when c e r t a i n k in d s o f r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e a r e u se d more
o r l e s s c o m p u ls iv e ly e i t h e r to m a i n t a i n o r p r e m a tu r e ly to
a l l a y d o u b t, th e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h i s use may be c a l l e d i n t o
q u e s t i o n . T h is l e a d s to th e n e x t p o i n t , t h a t o f u s in g r e l
i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e a s an a s s u r a n c e a g a i n s t a n x i e t y .
C o l l e c t i n g r e a s s u r a n c e s a g a i n s t a n x i e t y . In h i s
c h a p t e r on C h a r a c te r N e u ro s e s , F e n i c h e l l i s t s “c o l l e c t i n g r e
a s s u r a n c e s " a s a common way o f f i g h t i n g a n x i e t y . C o l l e c t i n g
a f f e c t i o n , p r e s t i g e , a d m ir a tio n o r pow er a r e some o f th e
o u t e r r e a s s u r a n c e s he m e n tio n s . Then he a d d s , "Good con
s c i e n c e and th e f e e l i n g o f a c t i n g r i g h t i n f u l f i l l i n g
i d e a l s may be u sed f o r th e same p u r p o s e s a s c o l l e c t i n g
e x t e r n a l r e a s s u r a n c e s ." ! " ^ I t i s o b v io u s how d e v o t i o n a l l i t
e r a t u r e c a n p r o v i d e t h i s l a t t e r k in d o f r e a s s u r a n c e , and
t h u s how i t can i n t e r f e r e w ith th e a tt e m p t to d e a l w i t h a
n e u r o s i s on th e l e v e l o f th e c a u se o f th e a n x i e t y . Only a s
th e a n x ie ty comes to c o n s c io u s e x p r e s s i o n in some way can
i t a c t a s e f f e c t i v e m o ti v a ti o n to h e lp b r i n g a b o u t a c u r e .
I t i s o f c o u rs e one o f th e m ajo r f u n c t i o n s o f r e l i
g io n to p r o v i d e a k in d o f t o t a l o r cosm ic r e a s s u r a n c e to
14 Ibid. p. 483
35
c r e a t u r e l y man t h a t l i f e i s m e a n in g fu l and t h a t each p e rs o n
h a s a r e a l p l a c e t o f i l l i n th e d i v in e p l a n . The n e u r o t i c
who g r a b s c o m p u lsiv e ly f o r ev ery i n n e r and o u t e r r e a s s u r a n c e
i s v ery d i f f e r e n t from t h e t r u l y r e l i g i o u s i n d i v i d u a l who,
o u t o f th e a w are n ess o f h i s own s i n f u l n e s s and cosm ic i n s i g -
f i c a n c e , se e k s t h e r e a s s u r a n c e o f knowing m an 's u l t i m a t e
m eaning and p u r p o s e f u l n e s s . The l a t t e r p e r s o n i s d r i v e n by
a c r e a t i v e a n x ie ty w hich i s v e ry d i f f e r e n t from a n e u r o t i c
a n x i e t y , and i t sh o u ld be one o f t h e t a s k s o f t h e p a s t o r
t o make t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n . I t i s som etim es more c r e a t i v e in
t h e lo n g ru n to w ith h o ld a s s u r a n c e s and to c a u se th e n eu
r o t i c i n d i v i d u a l to f a c e up t o h i s a n x ie ty and th e n to seek
o u t i t s d e e p e r c a u s e s i n h i s e g o c e n tr i c o r u n b a la n c e d l i f e .
The p ro b lem o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g betw een th e two k in d s o f
a n x i e t y h a s been w e ll t r e a t e d by R o llo May.15
To e x p lo r e t h e many o t h e r p o s t u l a t e s o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s
w h ic h m ight b e a r on o u r s u b j e c t would c a r r y us to o f a r
a f i e l d . The few p o i n t s n o te d above a re a t l e a s t s u g g e s t i v e .
We s h a l l n o t a tte m p t to r e s t a t e them i n p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l
te r m s , s in c e th ey a r e f a i r l y c l e a r a s th e y s ta n d and t h e i r
r e l a t i o n to th e use o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e i s o b v io u s o r
h a s been s t a t e d . One o r two o f them w i l l be r e f e r r e d to in
15 See e s p e c i a l l y R o llo May, " R e lig io n and A n x i e t y " ,P a s t o r
a l P s y c h o lo g y , V ol. 1, No. 3. pp. 4 6 -4 9 .
36
t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f s p e c i f i c c a s e s i n th e n e x t c h a p t e r .
In t h i s c h a p t e r we have t r i e d to d e a l w i t h t h e more
t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t s o f th e main p ro b lem o f th e t h e s i s . We
have t r i e d to a p p ly some o f th e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s and con
c e p t s o f p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l and p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p s y c h o lo g y ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e o u t l i n e d in C h a p te r I I , to t h e u se and
m is u se o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e i n such a way a s to p o i n t
up th e psycho dyn am ics i n v o lv e d . Some c o n c r e t e i l l u s t r a t i o n s
o f b o th t h e c r e a t i v e and th e n e u r o t i c u se o f l i t e r a t u r e
w ere c i t e d . An a tte m p t was made to i n d i c a t e th e in adequacy
o f th e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic al fram e o f r e f e r e n c e f o r th e p r e s e n t
s tu d y , and a p r i n c i p l e from th e " h o l i s t i c ” p o i n t o f view
was in c lu d e d to c o v e r t h i s in a d e q u a c y . An a r t i c l e by W illia m
M enninger was o f c o n s i d e r a b l e h e lp , and came c l o s e s t t o d e a l
in g w ith t h e s p e c i f i c p ro b lem o f t h i s s tu d y . B ecause o f th e
g r e a t . d e a r t h o f p r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e p ro b le m ,
how ever, we have had to r e l y on c o n j e c t u r e to some e x t e n t .
The fo llo w in g c h a p t e r o f c a s e s w i l l a tt e m p t to i l l u s t r a t e
more f u l l y some o f th e h y p o th e s e s s e t f o r t h in t h i s c h a p t e r .
CHAPTER IV
ILLUSTRATIVE CASES
T h is c h a p t e r w i l l c o n s i s t w h o lly o f c a s e s . Case m a te r
i a l w i l l in c lu d e b o th a s ta te m e n t a b o u t t h e d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r
a t u r e u se d and enough m a t e r i a l a b o u t th e i n d i v i d u a l in v o lv e d
to draw some c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e rn in g t h e psychodynam ic f a c t o r s
w h ich a re o p e r a t i n g . The s o u r c e s o f th e c a s e s a r e v a r i e d , and
w i l l be s t a t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y a t th e b e g in n in g o f eac h c a s e .
The c a s e s a r e in no se n se meant to be p a r a l l e l , n o r r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e ; th e y happened t o be a v a i l a b l e , and th e y seemed
a p p r o p r i a t e f o r th e s tu d y . Here a g a i n , some s p e c u l a t i o n i s
in v o lv e d in t h e o r i z i n g a b o u t th e p s y c h o d y n a m ic s; how ever,
t h e r e seemed to be an u n m is ta k e a b le c o re o f t r u t h i n each
w h ich was w e ll enough u n d e rs to o d t o j u s t i f y t h e i r b e in g
i n c lu d e d .
Most o f t h e c a s e s in t h i s stu d y d e a l w i t h t h e u se o f
p a r t i c u l a r p i e c e s o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e , and c o n s i d e r a b l e
d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e on them . The f i r s t two c a s e s , i n con
t r a s t to t h i s , d e a l w ith th e psychodynam ics o f t h e u se o f a
g e n e r a l r e l i g i o u s p o i n t o f view , and a r e ta k e n from r a t h e r
s k e tc h y m a t e r i a l i n books c o n c e rn e d w ith th e use o f p s y c h
o lo g y i n m i n i s t e r i a l p r a c t i c e . However, th e y th ro w some
l i g h t on th e p roblem w ith w hich we a r e g r a p p l i n g .
38
CASE A* - E m ersonian Theology
T h is c a s e i s ta k e n from a j o u r n a l a r t i c l e by a P r o
f e s s o r o f B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e and H is to r y o f R e l i g i o n s who
i s w e l l a c q u a in t e d w ith p s y c h o a n a l y t i c th e o ry .^ H e makes a
g e n e r a l s ta te m e n t a b o u t th e n a t u r e o f th e New E n g land
t h e o l o g y , s a y in g t h a t i t makes God p r i m a r i l y a p u n is h in g
f a t h e r - f i g u r e . (New E n g lan d th e o lo g y i s C a l v i n i s t i c ; i t s
m a jo r spokesman i s J o n a th a n EdwardsJ I n doing so , i t t e n d s
to r a i s e what th e F r e u d ia n s c a l l "O edipus g u i l t . " T h at i s ,
t h e eood c h u rc h p e o p le on th e l i s t e n i n g end o f a C a l v i n i s t i c
sermon te n d to t h i n k o f God a s th e y once th o u g h t o f t h e i r
f a t h e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when th o s e f a t h e r s were in a r e t r i b u
t i v e and p u n is h in g mood. More e s p e c i a l l y , say th e F r e u d i a n s ,
th e y a s s o c i a t e God w ith t h e i r f a t h e r s when th e y w ere t h r e a t
e n in g them a s l i t t l e boys f o r t h e i r v e ry e a r l y lo v e o f t h e i r
own m o th e rs — t h a t i s , when th ey w ere com peting w i t h th e
f a t h e r f o r th e lo v e o f th e m o ther. Dr. Casey th e n g o e s on
to c i t e th e c a s e o f a woman who, i n d e f e n s e a g a i n s t t h e
"O edipus g u i l t " a ro u s e d by h e r b ack g ro u n d o f New E n g lan d
t h e o lo g y , t u r n e d to U n i t a r i a n i s m , modern B i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m ,
and o p t i m i s t i c E m ersonian th e o lo g y . Her th e o lo g y , Casey
s a y s , was "a marked s u c c e s s a s a d e f e n s e m echanism ."
1 R o b e r t P# C asey, "O edipus M o tiv a tio n in R e l i g i o u s Thought
and F a n t a s y ," P s y c h i a t r y . V o l . 6 , p p . 219-28, 1942. ^
39
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , th e w r i t e r d o e s n o t g iv e s u f f i c i e n t
d e t a i l s f o r one to e v a l u a t e j u s t how c o m p le te ly t h i s wo
m a n 's th e o lo g y was d o m in a ted by h e r n e ed to a l l a y t h i s
g u i l t a n x i e t y . I t seems p l a u s i b l e , how ever, t h a t i t was
a t l e a s t p a r t l y m o tiv a te d by t h i s . Here th e n was a p r e s s i n g
p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l n eed: to w ard o f f th e a n x ie ty - p r o d u c in g
g u i l t f e e l i n g s w hich would be such a t h r e a t to th e phenom
e n a l s e l f . In s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h i s n e e d , th e i n d i v i d u a l
t u r n e d to a k in d o f th e o lo g y w hich r e a s s u r e d h e r t h a t God
was n o t a D iv in e P e rso n who would p u n i s h a s h e r f a t h e r d id .
The B i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m a l s o knocked some o f th e S c r i p t u r a l
p r o p s from u n d e r th e New E ngland th e o lo g y and s tr e n g th e n e d
th e i n d i v i d u a l in h e r d e s i r e to d is p r o v e th e t h r e a t e n i n g
th e o lo g y w i t h w hich she h ad grown up,
CASE B, - S u p e r n a t u r a l Theology
The seco n d c a s e d e a l i n g w ith a g e n e r a l r e l i g i o u s
p o i n t o f view c o n c e rn s a young 26 y e a r o l d i n s t r u c t o r in
P h ilo s o p h y o f R e l i g i o n . I t i s c i t e d by R o llo May.^
At t h e tim e t h a t he came f o r c o u n s e lin g he had become
i n t e r e s t e d i n w hat he c a l l s " s u p e r n a t u r a l t h e o l o g y ," w hich
e v i d e n t l y in c l u d e d a view o f man a s d e p ra v e d and o f l i t t l e
2 H o llo May, The A rt o f C o u n se lin g ( N a s h v i l l e : Cokesbury
P r e s s , 19397. p p . 1 3 1 -4 2 .
40
i n t r i n s i c w o rth . But l e t us f i r s t lo o k a t th e c h a r a c t e r
s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s t e a c h e r , whom we s h a l l c a l l Mr. B.
Mr. B* alw ays foun d i t n e c e s s a r y to work u n d e r g r e a t
t e n s i o n ; he had to have some k in d o f o u t s i d e c o m p u lsio n to
k e ep him u n d e r p r e s s u r e o r he became q u i t e r e s t l e s s . He was
a lm o s t p e r f e c t i o n i s t i n h i s w r i t i n g , n e v e r a llo w in g a n y th in g
to be p u b l i s h e d f o r t h a t r e a s o n . H is a m b itio n was i n o r d i n
a t e l y s t r o n g ; t h i s he a s s o c i a t e d w ith e a r l y c o m p e titio n w ith
h i s s i s t e r , w hich e v e n t u a l l y r e s u l t e d i n s tr o n g i n f e r i o r i t y
f e e l i n g s . Here we g e t some l i g h t on th e dev elo pm ent and th e
n a t u r e o f th e phenom enal s e l f , w h i c h had to s u p p o r t i t s e l f
by t u r n i n g t o s u p e r n a t u r a l th e o lo g y .
Toward th e end o f t h e c o u n s e l i n g , Mr* B. makes t h i s
r e v e a l i n g s ta te m e n t a b o u t h i s t h e o l o g i c a l v iew s:
. . . I t h i n k t h a t d i s t r u s t o f l i f e e x p l a i n s why I have
become so i n t e r e s t e d l a t e l y in s u p e r n a t u r a l t h e o lo g y .
By t h i s I was a b le t o l o o k down on th e w o rld , and condemn
man and c o n clu d e t h a t th e w o rld was a l l bad and n o th in g
c o u ld be e x p e c te d b u t c a t a s t r o p h e . I now see t h a t t h i s
a t t i t u d e i s p ro b a b ly c o n n e c te d w ith my g e n e r a l p e ssim ism
a b o u t l i f e . 5
Somehow, in t h i s p e r s o n a l i t y , th e c h ild h o o d i n f e r i o r i t y had
n o t been outgrow n b u t had c o n ti n u e d to dom inate th e grown
man. The a tte m p t to co m p en sate f o r i t by academ ic accom
p l is h m e n t h ad been s u c c e s s f u l o u tw a rd ly , b u t in w a rd ly th e
f e a r o f f a i l u r e and t h e n e ed f o r p e r f e c t i o n and g r e a t e r
3 Ibid. p. 142
41
a cco m p lish m en t s t i l l o p e r a t e d . These w ere im p o s s ib le o f a t
ta in m e n t o f c o u r s e , so t h e i n n e r a n x i e t i e s and p r e s s u r e s now
t u r n e d to an o u t e r p h ilo s o p h y f o r t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n . H e re,
th r o u g h a s u p e r i o r , c o n d e sc e n d in g view o f l i f e , th e s e l f
c o u ld f i g h t o f f i t s own i n n e r enemy th r o u g h an o u t e r p r o
j e c t i o n and t h u s a c h ie v e a k in d o f f a l s e s e c u r i t y . The s e l f
was " p r e s e r v i n g , " p o s s i b l e even " e n h a n c in g ," i t s e l f , b u t
o n ly a t t h e ex p en se o f d i s t o r t i n g l i f e and s e l e c t i n g from i t
o n ly t h o s e f a c t s w hich f i t t e d a p a r t i c u l a r p h i l o s o p h i c a l
fram ew ork.
CASE C. - T h i r t y - e i g h t h Psalm
The c a s e m a t e r i a l on w hich t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n i s b u i l t
i s c o n t a i n e d in Seward H i l t n e r ' s b ook . P a s t o r a l C o u n s e lin g .'^
A p a r i s h i o n e r , a p i l l a r o f t h e c h u rc h , d ro p s i n a t
t h e p a s t o r ' s home. He im m e d ia te ly opens th e c o n v e r s a t i o n
w i t h th e p a s t o r by sa y in g he would l i k e t o t a l k a b o u t th e
t h i r t y - e i g h t h p sa lm , to w hich he had a "most p e c u l i a r r e
a c t i o n . " (T h is p salm i s a song o f la m e n t o v e r th e s i n s and
d i s t r e s s o f th e p s a l m i s t , who h a s l o s t h i s f r i e n d s , whose
enem ies a r e a c t i v e a g a i n s t him , and who t u r n s w ith p i t i f u l
p l e a d in g to h i s G od.) The p a r i s h i o n e r s a y s ,
4 Seward H i l t n e r , P a s t o r a l C o u n se lin g (New York and Nash
v i l l e : A b in g d o n -d o k e sb u ry . 1 9 4 9 .) p p # 2 0 S ff . '
42
" L a st n i g h t I t u r n e d t o t h i s p sa lm in th e r e a d i n g s I ' v e
b een f o l l o w i n g . When I r e a d a b o u t t h e L o r d 's a rro w s
s t i c k i n g f a s t i n me, i t to u c h e d so m e th in g ; t h a t ' s th e
way 1 f e l t . I g o t to f e e l i n g w o rse and w o rs e . And when
I g o t to t h a t p l a c e a b o u t b e in g f e e b l e , t h a t ' s e x a c t l y
how I f e l t . .
H ere t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e p s a l m i s t i s c l e a r . But th e
s o l u t i o n o f t h e p s a l m i s t i s most u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t o t h e
r e a d e r , a s i s e v id e n t l a t e r in th e i n t e r v i e w :
"But he d o e s n 't r e a l l y g e t anyw here. He may be c o u ra g e
o u s i n a d m i t ti n g how he f e e l s , b u t what good d o es i t
do? He f e e l s j u s t a s b a d a t th e end a s he d id a t th e
b e g in n i n g , d o e s n 't he?"
The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s made, b u t i f i t were c o n ti n u e d to i t s
c o n c l u s i o n i t w ould l e a d th e r e a d e r to t h e h i g h ly u n f r u i t f u l
outcom e o f c a l l i n g on a L ord whose p r e s e n c e he f e e l s o n ly in
a k in d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l way. The p s a l m i s t t u r n s t o God, a s
t h e p a s t o r p o i n t s o u t , " n o t w i t h c o n f i d e n c e , b u t b e c a u s e he
d o e s n 't know what e l s e t o d o ."
The i m p o r ta n t t h i n g h e r e i s t o t r y to i s o l a t e th e
psychodynam ic f a c t o r s w hich moved th e r e a d e r so s t r o n g l y
and w hich i m p e l le d him to go a l l th e way to t h e p a s t o r ' s
h o u se to t r y to t a l k i t th r o u g h . We g e t a f a i r l y s p e c i f i c
answ er in t h i s comment:
"W ell, I g u e s s i t d o es h i t p r e t t y c l o s e home. I have
been f e e l i n g s o r r y f o r m y s e lf, and h e r e I come a c r o s s
a f e l l o w who does th e same and a d m its i t . B ut i t ' s a
l i t t l e d i s c o n c e r t i n g to f i n d he d o esn t g e t anywhere
w ith i t . "
In g e n e r a l te rm s we m ight say t h a t he was d e e p ly moved b e
c a u se o f h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e p s a l m i s t on th e b a s i s
43
o f t h e i r m u tu a l s u f f e r i n g .
As we lo o k more c a r e f u l l y , how ever, we can d i s t i n
g u i s h a t l e a s t two b a s i c p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l n e e d s w h ich ^help
to e x p la in th e u se o f t h e psadm. We assum e in t h e f i r s t
p l a c e t h a t Mr. B. e x p e r i e n c e s some k in d o f s u f f e r i n g a s
coming from " o u t s i d e " t o him, i e . from h i s e n v iro n m e n t o r
from th e non-ego p a r t s o f h i m s e l f . H is f i r s t n e e d , we m ight
s a y , i s to g e t r i d o f h i s s u f f e r i n g . The " p r e s e r v a t i o n and
enhancemerÉt o f th e phenom enal s e l f " g e n e r a l l y i n c l u d e s w i t h
i n i t s m eaning th e d e s i r e to p r e s e r v e t h a t s e l f w i t h o u t
s u f f e r i n g and p a i n . The se c o n d n e ed we may d i s t i n g u i s h ,
h o w e v er, i s b a a e d on t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t he may have to
c o n t i n u e t o s u f f e r : he n e e d s to f e e l t h a t h i s s e l f - p i t y i s
j u s t i f i e d ; he does n o t w an t t o f e e l g u i l t y f o r f e e l i n g s o r r y
f o r h i m s e l f . As a r e l i g i o u s man h i s c o n s c ie n c e w ould un
d o u b te d ly b o t h e r him i f he in d u lg e d in th e " s e l f - c e n t e r e d -
n e s s " o f s e l f - p i t y ; h i s norm al s e l f - c o n c e p t d o e s n o t i n
c l u d e any s e l f - p i t y . However, s i n c e he o b v io u s ly does p i t y
h i m s e l f t o some e x t e n t , he w i l l g r a b a t any o u t e r a s s u r a n c e
t h a t s e l f - p i t y can l e g i t i m a t e l y be i n c l u d e d i n h i s s e l f -
c o n c e p t. And i t i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s k in d o f a s s u r a n c e t h a t
t h e t h i r t y - e i g h t h p sa lm p r o v i d e s f o r t h e p a r i s h i o n e r ; i t
p r o v i d e s i t b e c a u s e i t h a s th e p r e s t i g e and a c c e p t a b i l i t y
o f th e B i b l e . The r e a d e r m ight have f e l t :
" I f i t ' s in th e B i b l e , i t must be a v a l i d r e l i g i o u s
44
f e e l i n g . And i f i t ' s a v a l i d r e l i g i o u s e x p e r ie n c e th e n
i t c a n ' t be so t e r r i b l e f o r me, a r e l i g i o u s man, t o f e e l
i t . So I g u e s s I d o n 't f e e l so b a d ly a b o u t p i t y i n g my
s e l f a f t e r a l l ; p e r h a p s i t ' s J u s t i f i e d f o r me i f i t ' s
j u s t i f i e d f o r th e p s a l m i s t . "
The f a c t t h a t th e r e a d e r f e l t "w orse and w orse" a s he r e a d
t h e p salm was c e r t a i n l y p a r t l y due to t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
w i t h a n o t h e r 's s u f f e r i n g ; b u t i t may a ls o have been p a r t l y
due to th e r e l a x i n g o f s e lf - c o n d e m n a tio n and g u i l t , w hich
th e n a llo w e d Mr. B. to e x p e r ie n c e more f u l l y h i s g r i e f and
p a i n . The p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l need t o in c lu d e s e l f - p i t y i n t o
t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t was p a r t l y m et, t h e n , by,: th e r e a d i n g o f
t h e p sa lm . And t h i s v ery a c c e p t i n g o f s e l f - p i t y may, i n i t s
t u r n , have a llo w e d an even f u l l e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h th e
p s a l m i s t ' s la m e n t.
B ut we have s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e was a n o th e r n e ed p u l l
in g in a n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n — th e demand o f th e s e l f t o be
f r e e d from p a i n . Thus a n o t h e r r e a s o n why t h e p sa lm a p p e a le d
was t h a t a t f i r s t i t o f f e r e d th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f h e lp in th e
r e l i e f o f s u f f e r i n g . More th a n t h a t , th e way i t m ig h t have
s u g g e s t e d , had i t gone on to do so , would have been con
s i s t e n t w ith what Angyal c a l l s th e " t r e n d to w ard homonomy";
t h a t i s , any s o l u t i o n s u g g e s te d i n th e p sa lm s w ould have
b e e n in te rm s o f God, and t h u s w ould have s a t i s f i e d th e deep
i n n e r lo n g in g to be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h " a u p e r i n d i v i d u a l w h o le s ,"
in t h i s c a s e , God.
B ut t h i s hope was n o t f u l f i l l e d . So a lth o u g h th e
45
r e a d e r g o t some s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r one o f h i s n e e d s , t h e o t h e r
o n e s were n o t met and i t l e f t him v e ry d i s s a t i s f i e d . I t was
t h i s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , p i n s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f i n d i n g s t i l l
a n o t h e r s o l u t i o n , a ls o c o n s i s t e n t w i t h th e " t r e n d to w ard
homonomy," w hich im p e lle d him to go to see th e m in is te r *
Such c a s e s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h th e la m e n tin g
p s a l m i s t do n o t alw ays t u r n o u t so h o p e f u l l y . F o llo w in g h i s
r e p o r t o f th e above c a s e , Mr* H i l t n e r makes th e f o llo w in g
comment: ". . # a t l e a s t one man h a s b e en r e p o r t e d w i t h i n
th e p a s t y e a r o r two a s h a v in g c o m m itted s u i c i d e a f t e r med
i t a t i o n on th e t h i r t y - e i g h t h p s a l m . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e we
m ig ht assume t h a t t h e hope o f m ee tin g th e need t o g e t w e ll
was e x tre m e ly low ( o r p o s s i b l y d e e p ly b u r i e d u n d er o t h e r
a s p e c t s o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y ) , and th e c o n c e p t o f th e s e l f
was d o m in ated by d e s p a i r and d is c o u ra g e m e n t even b e f o r e th e
r e a d i n g o f t h e p sa lm . The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e p s a l m i s t
Was th e f i n a l f a c t o r , t h e n , in th e p r o c e s s o f s e l f - d e s t r u c
t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y b e c a u se o f th e " p a ra n o id " e le m e n ts o f
th e p s a l m i s t * s la m e n t, a s H i l t n e r p o i n t s o u t . ( I t i s p o s
s i b l e to c l a s s i f y s u i c i d e w i t h i n th e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l fram e
o f r e f e r e n c e by assum ing t h a t o n ly by s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n can
a v i t a l a s p e c t o f th e phenom enal s e l f be p r e s e r v e d . Thus
o n ly by s u i c i d e c o u ld a bank t e l l e r c a u g h t in f r a u d p r e s e r v e
5 Ibid* p* 208
46
t h e phenom enal s e l f w hich c lu n g to t h e " b ra v e r y " o f s u i c i d e
a s th e l a s t fra g m e n t o f s e l f - r e s p e c t ' l e f t . )
CASE D. - Dorn Chapman
T h is i l l u s t r a t i o n i s b a se d on th e h i s t o r y o f a young
woman known to th e w r i t e r f o r a number o f y e a r s . The c a s e
m a t e r i a l i s b a s e d on c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h h e r , and on p e r s o n a l
c o n t a c t s w ith two p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s from whom she h a s had
h e l p . We s h a l l d e s i g n a t e h e r a s M iss L#
The d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e w hich she u s e d w a s , f i r s t ,
The S p i r i t u a l L e t t e r s o f Dorn John Chapman, and l a t e r , P e re
de C a u s s a d e 's Abandonment to D iv in e P r o v i d e n c e . T h ere were
two t e a c h i n g s i n p a r t i c u l a r w hich she rem embers a s h a v in g
a p p e a le d to h e r , o r a s h a v in g been im p o r ta n t so f a r a s th e
i n f l u e n c e s o f th e w r i t i n g s upon h e r was c o n c e rn e d . The f i r s t
was th e i n s i s t e n c e on p r a y e r , and on c o n ti n u i n g to p ra y r e
g a r d l e s s o f i t s seem ing f r u i t l e s s n e s s , and r e g a r d l e s s o f
o n e ' s i n n e r s t a t e * The f o llo w in g i s a q u o t a t i o n i l l u s t r a t i v e
o f t h i s e m p h asis:
B ut i t h a s c e r t a i n l y b een a d i s a s t r o u s m is ta k e to s h o r t
en th e tim e o f p r a y e r when i t d oes n o t go w e l l . And th e
Use o f books o r m e d i t a t i o n i n s t e a d i s a mere w a s te o f
tim e . I q u i t e b e l i e v e t h a t more p r a y e r w i l l be good f o r
y o u r n e r v e s and s t r e n g t h e n y ou. . I ' . I f p r a y e r becomes
on ly a c u te s u f f e r i n g , so much th e b e t t e r , I suppose.®
The seco n d s i g n i f i c a n t e m p h a s is .c o n c e r n e d th e d i s r e -
6 S p i r i t u a l L e t t e r s o f Dorn Joh n Chapman, 0 . S.B* (London:
Sheed and Ward. 1944) p p . 1 4 8 f.
47
g a r d i n g o f o n e 's f e e l i n g s — th e a d v ic e to l i v e on a s th o u g h
f e e l i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t u r b i n g o r u n p le a s a n t o n e s , were
o f n o t th e s l i g h t e s t im p o rta n c e . W hatever f e e l i n g s one had
w ere to be a c c e p te d a s "C5-od's W ill" and were to be l e f t b e
h i n d a s soon a s p o s s i b l e .
G-od i s l e a d i n g you i n t o p e r f e c t i o n "by ways t h a t you
knew n o t " , . . . So do n o t w o rry , b u t a c c e p t a l l y o u r
i m p e r f e c t i o n s — w h e th e r p a s t o r p r e s e n t — a s i n e v i t
a b l e , and use them a s s t e p s up. . . . Take y o u r im p e r-
f e c t „ s t a t e a s G-od's W i l l , and hug th e p a i n i t g i v e s
yo u.
T h is second em phasis f i t s w e l l w i t h th e b a s i c m essage o f
b o t h t h e s e b o o k s , nam ely, t h a t one i s t o abandon a l l t h a t
h ap p en s to t h e w i l l o f God, o r to D iv in e P r o v id e n c e ; t h a t
i s , t h a . t one i s to a c c e p t e v e r y t h i n g w hich h ap p en s a s G o d 's
w i l l , an d t h u s a s som ethin g to w hich to be r e s i g n e d r a t h e r
t h a n a s som ething to be u n d e r s to o d .
Many o f th e Dom Chapman l e t t e r s were a d d r e s s e d to
c l o i s t e r e d C a th o l i c nuns who had w r i t t e n to him f o r a d v ic e
a b o u t t h e i r own s p i r i t u a l t r i a l s . The s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e i r
p ro b le m s w i t h th o s e o f M iss L. l e d h e r t o an i d e n t i f i c a
t i o n w ith t h e n u n s, and to an a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e a t t i t u d e s
s u g g e s te d by Dom Chapman to them. T h is i s th e k in d o f
s ta te m e n t w hich l e d M iss L , to f e e l t h a t t h e i r p ro b le m s
w ere h e r p ro b le m s:
7 Ibid. pp. 153ff.
48
You have b e en i n 'd e s o l a t i o n * and you have b e en hoping
t h a t you h a d fo und th e c au se i n some w ant o f d e ta c h
ment from t h i s o r t h a t . . . . you n eed t o l e a r n d e ta c h
ment from y o u r s e l f , and God i s t e a c h i n g you t h i s i n th e
u s u a l way, by l e t t i n g you f e e l p o w e r le s s to g e t to
Him. . .
H e re , a s i n th e c a s e o f th e p a r i s h i o n e r who was so moved by
th e t h i r t y - e i g h t h p sa lm , th e i n d i v i d u a l was im p re s s e d w ith
w hat she r e a d b e c a u se i t seemed to " sp e a k to h e r c o n d i t i o n " ;
i t d e s c r i b e d h e r own i n n e r s t a t e o f " d e s o l a t i o n , " and i t
p u r p o r t e d to s u g g e s t th e s p i r i t u a l way to d e a l w i t h t h a t
c o n d i t i o n .
To h e r , t h e p , th e t h i n g to be done was to p ra y re g u
l a r l y and i n t e n s e l y , w i t h o u t r e g a r d to how u s e f u l o r u s e l e s s
i t seemed o r how m e a n in g fu l o r m e a n in g le s s i t becam e. She
was g iv e n to lo n g p e r i o d s o f d e p r e s s i o n and d e s p a i r , b u t she
s t r o v e d e s p e r a t e l y to p u t t h e s e f e e l i n g s o u t o f h e r mind and
to l i v e a s th o u g h e v e r y t h i n g w ere j u s t th e same; she r e f u s e d
to show o u tw a rd ly , and t r i e d n o t to adm it in w a rd ly , how d e s
p e r a t e h e r i n n e r c o n d i t i o n a c t u a l l y w as. F i n a l l y , how ever,
t h e i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h i s whole a p p ro a c h became u n d e n ia b ly
c l e a r and she so u g h t h e l p from a p s y c h o l o g i s t , who a s s u r e d
h e r t h a t she sh o u ld abandon t h i s p r a y e r and d e v o t i o n a l r e a d
in g i f i t was n o t h e l p f u l o r m e a n in g fu l t o h e r . As she p r o
g r e s s e d i n t h e r a p y , she came to see th e c o m p u lsiv e elem ent
a Ibid. pp. 154f
49
i n h e r p r a y in g and h e r r e a d i n g , and now f e e l s t h a t she h a s
some p e r s p e c t i v e on t h a t w hole p e r i o d in h e r l i f e * ^
What a r e t h e dynam ics o f t h i s c a s e from t h e phenom
e n o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view ? M iss L. h a s d e s c r i b e d h e r s e l f in
t h i s p e r i o d a s a "m oral s t a r " ; t h a t i s , she c o n s i d e r e d h e r
s e l f an e n t i r e l y s e l f l e s s and d e e p ly s p i r i t u a l p e r s o n . She
l i k e d e s p e c i a l l y t o t h i n k o f h e r s e l f a s a p e r s o n w i t h r e g u
l a r p e r i o d s o f p r a y e r and m e d i t a t i o n , s in c e t h a t , more th a n
any o t h e r one t h i n g , s p e l l e d t r u e r e l i g i o u s commitment f o r
h e r . She n e v e r a llo w e d h e r s e l f to c o n s i d e r h e r own f e e l i n g s ,
b u t alw ay s d id w hat she c o n s i d e r e d a " r e l i g i o u s p e rs o n "
w o uld do. She had an u n u s u a l ly s tr o n g se n se o f d u t y , and
t r i e d to s u b j e c t h e r own w i l l t o w hat she c o n s i d e r e d was
G o d 's w i l l . I n o t h e r w o rd s, she was g o v e rn e d l a r g e l y by a
s e l f - c o n c e p t o f a " G o d -c e n te re d p e rs o n ." ^ ® I t s h o u ld be
c l e a r how d e v o t i o n a l r e a d i n g s t r e n g t h e n e d t h i s view o f h e r
s e l f . We can see how t h e c h o o sin g o f t h i s k in d o f r e a d i n g
and th e e m p h asizin g o f p r a y e r and s e lf-a b a n d o n m e n t l e d to
t h e m a i n t a i n in g and s o l i d i f y i n g o f t h i s c o n c e p t o f s e l f . We
Can u n d e r s ta n d and a p p r e c i a t e a l s o , how ever, how a p e r s o n
9 I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t th e most d i f f i c u l t p ro b lem i n t h e
e a r l y s t a g e s o f th e r a p y was f o r j M i s s L. to g a i n any in
s i g h t a t a l l i n t o what she r e a l l y f e l t .
10 T h is h ig h c o n c e p t of h e r s e l f gave M iss L. a f e e l i n g o f
m o ral s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r h e r h u s b a n d ÿ who d i d n o t s h a r e
h e r r e l i g i o u s f e r v o r . Her u n c o n s c io u s c o n d e sc e n d in g a t t i
tu d e l e d to m a r i t a l e s tra n g e m e n t and e v e n t u a l l y d i v o r c e .
50
u n d e r g r e a t I n n e r p r e s s u r e and o u tw ard s u f f e r i n g w ould be
l e d to such c h o i c e s , s i n c e th e y seemed a t th e tim e to o f f e r
t h e one way to a c h ie v e a k in d o f i n n e r s e c u r i t y .
Such b e h a v i o r , how ever, l e d to a c r i s i s , a s i t so
f r e q u e n t l y d o e s . The i n n e r f o r c e s , l a r g e l y d e e p e r n e e d s
stemming from h e r own f e e l i n g s , w hich h a d been k e p t i n sub
j e c t i o n f o r so lo n g , r e a s s e r t e d th e m s e lv e s more and more
s t r o n g l y . Where she w ould say a c o n s c io u s "Yes" to an o u t e r
s i t u a t i o n w hich she th o u g h t demanded h e r s e r v i c e s , h e r d e ep
e r s e l f u t t e r e d an u n c o n s c io u s "No"; and she g r a d u a l l y b e
came more aw are o f - t h is c o n f l i c t . H er r e c u r r e n t d e p r e s s i o n s
a l s o c o n ti n u e d , w i t h t h e i r p sy c h o so m a tic symptoms. A ll o f
t h e s e l e d h e r to se e k p s y c h o l o g i c a l h o lp , w hich in t u r n h a s
b ro u g h t h e r to an e n la rg e m e n t o f h e r c o n c e p t of h e r s e l f and
t o a l a r g e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e m eaning o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t
e r a t u r e i n h e r l i f e .
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t i n h e r r e c o l l e c t i o n s ,
she r e f e r s f r e q u e n t l y to th e lo n g p e r i o d s o f tim e o v e r
w hich th e nun s s u f f e r e d t h e i r " d e s o l a t i o n s " " (ac co rd in g to
t h e d a t e s on t h e l e t t e r s i n th e Chapman b o o k ) . The Abbot *s
a d v i c e s , i n o t h e r w o rd s, seemed to be i n e f f e c t i v e so f a r
as r e l i e f from s u f f e r i n g was c o n c e rn e d . I t i s f a i r l y c e r
t a i n , how ever, t h a t t h i s . f a c t o f tim e was a t f i r s t e x c lu d e d
from h e r a w a re n e ss — o r a t l e a s t n e v e r came i n t o c l e a r
f o c u s — u n t i l she was b e g in n in g to t h i n k o f abandoning th e
51
Chapman-de C aussade answ er to h e r p ro b lem , Now, when h e r
s e l f - c o n c e p t does n o t i n c l u d e th e t h i n g s em p h asized i n t h e s e
w r i t i n g s , t h e f a c t o f t h e i r seem ing f a i l u r e i s i n f o c u s ,
and th e more p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s a r e d e p r e c i a t e d . T h is i s a
good example o f th e s e l e c t i v i t y o f p e r c e p t i o n , b a s e d on
c u r r e n t p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l n e e d s.
CASS E. - Thomas ^ Kempis
The i n d i v i d u a l who s u p p l i e s t h i s c a s e h i s t o r y i s
known i n t i m a t e l y to th e w r i t e r , a s i s th e p s y c h o l o g i s t w ith
whom he h a s w orked. We s h a l l d e s i g n a t e him a s Mr. P .
The d e v o t i o n a l m a t e r i a l on w hich we s h a l l con cen
t r a t e so f a r a s Mr. P . i s c o n c e rn e d i s th e I m i t a t i o n o f
C h r i s t . p e rh a p s th e m ost w id e ly r e a d o f th e C a t h o l i c devo
t i o n a l c l a s s i c s . T h is book was u s e d most i n t e n s i v e l y by
Mr. P . a t a tim e when he f e l t a n e e d to make r e l i g i o u s devo
t i o n th e c e n t e r o f h i s l i f e . He was a c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r
d u r in g th e w ar, and he had come to f e e l th e " r a d i c a l n e s s "
o f h i s s t a n d ; he f e l t t h a t o n ly by b r i n g i n g a l l a s p e c t s o f
h i s l i f e u n d er th e r a d i c a l k in d o f C h r i s t i a n i t y w h ich p a c i
f is m im p lie d c o u ld he be c o n s i s t e n t and s e l f - r e s p e c t i n g .
Thus he came to t h e I m i t a t i o n w i t h a d e s i r e to commit him
s e l f s in g le - m in d e d ly to God.
The f o llo w in g q u o t a t i o n i s a sample o f t h e k i n d o f
e m p hasis in th e I m i t a t i o n w hich most im p re ss e d him :
52
I f a man g iv e h i s w hole s u b s ta n c e , s t i l l i t i s n o t h i n g .
And i f he do g r e a t p e n a n c e , i t i s b u t l i t t l e .
And i f he a t t a i n to a l l know ledge, he i s f a r o f f s t i l l .
And i f he have g r e a t v i r t u e and v e ry f e r v e n t d e v o ti o n ,
t h e r e i s s t i l l much w a n tin g t o him , nam ely, th e one
t h i n g n e c e s s a r y f o r him .
What i s t h i s ? T hat h a v in g l e f t a l l t h i n g s e l s e , he l e a v e
a l s o h i m s e l f , and w h o lly go o u t o f h i m s e l f , and r e t a i n
n o t h in g o f s e l f - l o v e .
Then may he be t r u l y p o o r in s p i r i t , and may say w i t h
th e P s a l m i s t : a lo n e and p o o r . "
Y et i s t h e r e no one r i c h e r th a n such a man, none more
p o w e r f u l, none more f r e e ; who know eth how to l e a v e
h i m s e l f and a l l t h i n g s , and to p u t h i m s e l f in the*
v e ry lo w e s t p l a c e . H
Some o f th e o t h e r s p e c i f i c t e a c h i n g s o f t h i s book w hich he
Used w ere: "Shun th e company o f m en"; "Love to be s i l e n t
when w i t h o t h e r s " ; "Never be w h olly i d l e " ; "B ear o t h e r s '
d e f e c t s p a t i e n t l y " ; "Always judge w e l l and h i g h ly o f o t h e r s . "
A ll o f t h e s e emphases a p p e a le d to him , s in c e th ey h e lp e d
him to f e e l th e h u m il i ty w hich à Kempis u rg e d , and th e y p e r
m i t t e d more s in g le - m in d e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n on th e m ajo r t a s k
o f t h e w o rs h ip and s e r v i c e o f God.
Now l e t u s t r y to examine c r i t i c a l l y th e psychodynam
i c f a c t o r s w hich were o p e r a t i n g i n t h i s use o f th e I m i t a t i o n .
F i r s t o f a l l , th e c o n c lu d in g s e c t i o n o f th e above q u o t a t i o n
o u g h t to be exam ined; h e r e t h e w r i t e r p r a i s e s h i g h l y th e
i n d i v i d u a l who t r i e s to a c h ie v e t h i s h u m i l i t y and :
11 Thomas à Kempis, The I m i t a t i o n o f C h r i s t (Rev. J.M*
L e le n , e d i t o r ; U n i t e d . S t a t e s and Canada: C a th o l i c Book
P u b l i s h i n g C o ., 1941) p p . I 2 4 f Book I I , Chap. XI.
53
he p ro m is e s su ch an I n d i v i d u a l s p i r i t u a l r i c h e s , power and
freed o m . T h is p i c t u r e o f th e s a i n t and s p i r i t u a l w ise man
a p p e a le d g r e a t l y to th e im a g in a tio n o f Mr. P. — i t r e p r e
s e n t e d h i s e g o - i d e a l and th e c o re o f h i s s e l f - c o n c e p t . Thus
he Was more th a n w i l l i n g t o t r y t o f o llo w a d v ic e a s to how
one a t t a i n e d such t r e a s u r e s . T here was a lr e a d y o f c o u rs e an
e le m e n t o f s p i r i t u a l s u p e r i o r i t y even i n r e a d i n g and t r y i n g
t o f o llo w such l o f t y t e a c h i n g s ; Mr* P . ' s s e l f - e s t e e m was
c e r t a i n l y r a i s e d by th e use o f t h i s d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e .
But a s we t r i e d t o examine th e p sy c h ody nam ics t h e r e
seemed to be f a c t o r s o t h e r th a n sim ply th e b o l s t e r i n g up
o f th e f e e l i n g o f s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s . S t r a n g e l y enough th e
g r e a t em phasis on a s e v e r e judgm ent o f o n e s e l f seemed to
s e r v e th e n e e d s o f t h a t same s e l f . The s e lf - c o n d e m n a tio n
Was n o t c o m p le te o f c o u r s e , b u t s e l e c t i v e , and t h a t s e l e c
t i o n was made on th e b a s i s o f th e t e a c h i n g s o f th e I m i t a
t i o n and on th e n e e d s o f t h e phenom enal s e l f ; t h e s e l f - c o n
d e m n a tio n was p a r t i c u l a r l y stro n g where th e t e a c h i n g s c o in
c i d e d w i t h what t h e s e l f a c t u a l l y w an ted t o condemn. And,
a s p o i n t e d o u t i n th e p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r , t h e phenom enal
s e l f t r i e s to e x c lu d e from i t s e l f th o s e a s p e c t s o f r e a l i t y
w hich c o n s t i t u t e a t h r e a t to i t . One o f Mr. P . ^ s p ro b lem s
was a f e e l i n g o f i n s e c u r i t y i n s o c i a l g r o u p s ; t h u s th e
I m i t a t i o n ' s a d v ic e to shun th e company o f men was g l a d l y
a c c e p te d and Mr. P . f e l t he c o u ld g iv e in t o h i s n a t u r a l
%
54
i n c l i n a t i o n to s ta y away from s o c i a l g a t h e r i n g s . He a ls o
te n d e d to shy away from " f e e l i n g - r e l a t i o n s h i p s " w i t h o t h e r s ,
t h a t i s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s w here he w ould become so in v o lv e d
t h a t he would have to e x p r e s s how he r e a l l y f e l t a b o u t
someone, e i t h e r p o s i t i v e l y o r n e g a t i v e l y . Thus t h e a d v ic e
to b e a r o th e rs * d e f e c t s and n e v e r to be c r i t i c a l o f them
was g l a d l y a c c e p te d . He te n d e d t o f i g h t h i s i n n e r a n x i e t i e s
by p u sh in g h i m s e l f to w ork, s tu d y e t c . , and t h i s a l s o was
e n c o u ra g e d by th e b o o k .I n g e n e r a l we c o u ld say t h a t th e
ex tre m e s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n t a u g h t by à Kempis was u se d p a r t l y
a s a means o f e x c lu d in g th e u n a c c e p ta b le from t h e phenom
e n a l s e l f . Many o f th e i n s e c u r i t i e s w hich alw ays came to
Mr. P . i n h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r s w ere a l l e v i a t e d a t
t h e same tim e t h a t he en h an c ed h i s c o n c e p t o f h i m s e l f a s
a " r e l i g i o u s man."
F o r many i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e r e i s a k in d o f s e c u r i t y
t h a t comes w i t h dogm atism , o r w i t h an a b s o l u t e judgm ent o f
any k i n d , o r w i t h any f i n a l d e c i s i o n . Some p e o p le have a
n e e d f o r c e r t a i n t y , and any k in d o f b e l i e f o r a c t i o n t h a t
m e e ts t h e i r need f o r c e r t a i n t y i s em braced. I t i s i n t e r e s t
in g to n o te i n th e c a s e o f Mr. P . and h i s use o f t h e I m i t a
t i o n t h a t t h e r e was s e c u r i t y in t h e a b s o l u t e c o n d em n atio n
o f s e l f , j u s t a s t h e r e m ig h t be s e c u r i t y in th e a b s o l u t e
p o s i t i v e v a lu in g o f th e s e l f f o r o t h e r s . Such s t a t e m e n t s
a s , " I t w i l l do th e e no harm to p u t t h y s e l f below ev ery b o d y .
55
b u t i t w i l l h u r t th e e v e ry much to p u t t h y s e l f b e f o r e any
o n e*"^^ r e i n f o r c e d t h i s n e ed f o r a b s o l u t e n e s s w hich was d i s
g u i s e d u n d e r th e b a n n e r o f h u m i l i t y . E s s e n t i a l l y s u c h " e i t h e r -
o r - n e s s " i s a n o th e r k in d o f p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t f a c i n g unde
s i r a b l e a s p e c t s o f th e s e l f , f o r when one i s w i l l i n g to
lo o k a t h i m s e l f a s he i s , he s e e s n e i t h e r w h ite n o r b l a c k
b u t V a rio u s sh a d es o f g r a y , W h o lesale co n d em n atio n , e i t h e r
o f o n e s e l f o r o t h e r s , c a n be a most e f f e c t i v e d e fe n s e
a g a i n s t f a c i n g th e r e a l t r u t h , and th e I m i t a t i o n i s c e r
t a i n l y open to th e c h a rg e o f s u p p o r tin g t h a t k in d o f d e
f e n s e when i t i s u se d by some ty p e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s .
We c a n n o t le a v e th e c a s e o f Mr. P , w ith o u t a d m i t ti n g
t h a t i n th e a tte m p t to show n e g a t iv e psychodynam ic f a c t o r s
w h ich e n t e r e d i n t o h i s use o f th e I m i t a t i o n o f C h r i s t . we
have n o t g iv e n a f a i r p i c t u r e . T here w ere c e r t a i n l y l a r g e
e le m e n ts o f th e " d e s i r e t o r e l a t e to s u p e r i n d i v i d u a l
w holes" i n h i s d e v o t i o n a l l i f e . T here i s n o t much dou bt
b u t t h a t a Kempis* em phasis on s e l f - e x a n i i h a t i o h , 'o n s i m p l i
c i t y , and a g a i n s t th e p i l i n g up o f " w o rld ly ", knowledge h ad
c o n s i d e r a b l e p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on Mr. P . * s l i f e . Even th e
f e e l i n g o f o n e*s own s m a lln e s s b e f o r e t h e T o t a l i t y w hich
i s God must have had some e le m e n ts o f t r u e "homonomy" in
i t . The r e a l t a s k i s to t r y to s e p a r a t e o u t th e p a t h o l o g i c a l
12 Ibid. p. 31.
56
and n e g a t i v e from t h e g r o w th f u l and p o s i t i v e — t o t r y to
s e l e c t and b a la n c e what one u s e s from d e v o ti o n a l w r i t i n g s .
Here a g a i n , t h e n , we come upon th e need f o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g . Here a g a in th e p l a c e and th e n e c e s s i t y o f th e
" s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t o r " in th e use o f d e v o t i o n a l r e a d in g
becomes c l e a r .
CASE P. - I s a a c P e n in g to n
The i n d i v i d u a l in t h i s i n s t a n c e , a m id d le -a g e d woman
whom we s h a l l c a l l M iss 0 # , i s a Q uaker who h a s ta k e n an
a c t i v e p a r t i n th e S o c ie ty o f F r i e n d s f o r many y e a r s and
c o n t i n u e s to do so. However, in th e p a s t t h r e e o r f o u r y e a r s
she h a s been g o in g th ro u g h a J u n g ia n a n a l y s i s and h a s g a in e d
c o n s i d e r a b l e i n s i g h t i n t o th e i n n e r m eaning o f some o f h e r
p a s t p r a c t i c e s * The f a c t s w ere r e l a t e d by h e r .
The d o c t r i n e o f th e I n n e r L ig h t h a s been c e n t r a l in
M iss 0 . * s t h i n k i n g ab out Q uakerism . She h a s rë a d i n t e n s i v e l y
i n Quaker l i t e r a t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e Works and L e t t e r s
o f I s a a c P e n i n g t o n . and t h e s e w r i t i n g s have i n f l u e n c e d h e r
c o n s i d e r a b l y in h e r s e a r c h f o r t h e I n n e r L ig h t w orking in
h e r own c o n s c i o u s n e s s . G r a d u a lly she beg an to i d e n t i f y th e
I n n e r L ig h t w i t h a k in d o f n o n - r a t i o n a l p ro m p tin g w hich w ould
come: i n t o h e r c o n s c io u s n e s s a t t im e s . O fte n t h i s p ro m p tin g
w ould s u g g e s t p a r t i c u l a r c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n o r p a r t i c u l a r
5 7
s o l u t i o n s to p ro b le m s and, so f a r a s she c o u ld t e l l , i t came
from beyond h e r c o n s c i o u s , r a t i o n a l mind. T hese p ro m p tin g s
seemed to f i t , in o t h e r w ords, w i t h w hat she had r e a d o f
t h e n a tu r e o f th e I n n e r L i g h t .
I t was a l s o a c e n t r a l d o c t r i n e o f e a r l y Q uakerism
t h a t th e L ig h t was i n f a l l i b l e , and t h a t one must f o llo w
i t s l e a d i n g .
L e t n o th in g judge i n th e e ( c o n c e r n in g t h i n e own
h e a r t , c o n c e rn in g o t h e r s , o r c o n c e rn in g any way o r t r u t h
o f God) b u t o n ly th e b e g o tt e n o f God i n t h e h e a r t . L e t
th e l i g h t i n w hich th o u a re b e g o tt e n to God, and which
s h i n e s upon h i s b e g o t t e n , be t h e only judge i n t h e e ,
and th e n th o u c a n s t n o t e r r i n judgm ent. Be n o t h a s t y ,
be n o t fo rw a rd in judgm ent, keep b a ck to th e l i f e ,
s t i l l w a i t i n g f o r th e a p p e a ra n c e and o p e n in g s o f th e
l i f e . l 3
From such q u o t a t i o n s a s t h i s one she g o t th e f e e l i n g b o th
o f th e i n f a l l i b i l i t y o f t h e i n n e r l e a d i n g , and a l s o o f th e
p a t i e n c e one must e x e r c i s e i n o r d e r tOr. a c q u i r e i t . T here
was much t h a t she had r e a d w hich d e s c r i b e d th e L ig h t as
a p p e a r in g f i r s t a s g lim m e rin g s o r ab o n ly s l i g h t p ro m p tin g s ;
i f one f o llo w e d t h e s e l e a d i n g s , g r e a t e r L ig h t would come*
Thus i t Was n a t u r a l t h a t she to o k s l i g h t i n n e r f e e l i n g s .
Vague u n e a s i n e s s e s , b a r e l y c o n s c io u s u r g i n g s , e t c . a s i n
s t a n c e s o f " g lim m erin g s o f th e L i g h t . " "They come from b e
yond m y se lf — I d i d n o t o r i g i n a t e them ," she s a i d to
13 R o b e rt J . L e a c h , e d i t o r , The In w ard Jo u rn e y o f I s a a c
P e n in g to n (W a l l i n g f o r d , P a . : P e n d le H i l l H i s t o r i c a l
S t u d i e s , No* 6) p . 30 .
58
h e r s e l f , "so th e y must be w hat th e e a r l y F r i e n d s w ere t a l k
in g a b o u t . " She a l s o had g a t h e r e d from h e r r e a d i n g t h a t i f
t h e L ig h t a t one commands a t h i n g a s e v i l , i t d o e s n o t a t
a n o t h e r tim e command t h e same t h i n g a s good. Thus, s i n c e she
b e l i e v e d i n th e v a l i d i t y o f th e L i g h t i n e a r l y Q u a k ers, any
l e a d i n g o f h e r own t h a t l e d h e r i n t o a c t i o n s s i m i l a r t o th e
a c t i o n s o f e a r l y F r ie n d s must be h e r own t r u e L i g h t .
An example i n te rm s o f a s l i g h t i n c i d e n t may g iv e
body to t h i s a b s t r a c t d i s c u s s i o n o f " i n n e r l e a d i n g s . " M iss
0 . r e l a t e s ,
I was i n th e house one m orning and, l o o k in g o u t th e
window a f t e r th e milkman had come and g o n e , I n o t i c e d
t h a t he had l e f t a l o t o f s l i p s o f p a p e r l y i n g a ro u n d
on th e s t r e e t . I th o u g h t th e y m ight be o f v a lu e to him
and t h a t , inasm uch a s I saw them t h e r e , I s h o u ld p i c k
them u p. I d i d t h i s and l e a r n e d l a t e r from t h e milkman
t h a t he had i n te n d e d t o throw them away. I n d e c i d in g to
p i c k them up, I f e l t r e l u c t a n t to do i t b e c a u s e I would
be c o n s p i c i o u s ; t h i s r e l u c t a n c e 1 to o k a s u n w i l l i n g n e s s
t o be o b e d ie n t to an i n n e r u r g e . I a l s o th o u g h t to my
s e l f , "What i f I d o n * t p i c k them up, maybe h e * 11 l o s e
som ething he n e e d s ."
The r e l u c t a n c e i n t h i s exam ple M iss 0* to o k t o c o n firm
t h e V a l i d i t y o f th e i n n e r l e a d i n g w hich c o u n s e le d t o overcome
i t * In t h i s more o r l e s s f o r c e d overcom ing we can se e a com
p u l s i v e ele m e n t w hich i s a s ig n t h a t th e c h o ic e and th e
a c t i o n was n o t a w h o lly f r e e one — a t l e a s t i n th e se n se
t h a t th e m o t i v a t i o n s f o r i t w ere n o t f u l l y u n d e r s to o d . As
14 From M iss 0.* g n o t e s , p r e p a r e d f o r t h i s s tu d y .
59
M iss 0 , d i d come to u n d e rs ta n d th e n a t u r e of t h e s e i n n e r
u rg e s more a d e q u a t e l y , she d is c o v e r e d t h a t th e co m p u lsiv e
e le m e n t was f r e q u e n t l y p r e s e n t . In h e r a n a l y s i s she h a s
fo u n d t h e s e vague u n e a s i n e s s e s w hich she had c a l l e d th e L ig h t
w ere f r e q u e n t l y th e r e s u l t o f p r e v i o u s s t a n d a r d s o r modes o f
th o u g h t w hich she f e l t she had ab an don ed , now f o r c i n g them
s e l v e s a g a in i n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I n g e n e r a l t h e s e s t a n d a r d s
o r v a lu e s w hich w ere o f t e n th e so u rc e o f th e I n n e r V oice
w ere m a s c u lin e , o v e r - r e s p o n s i b l e , somewhat a g g r e s s iv e a s
p e c t s o f h e r s e l f ; th ey w ere d e ep ly i n g r a i n e d i n h e r c h a r a c
t e r s t r u c t u r e and w ere e n c o u ra g e d e s p e c i a l l y in h e r c o l l e g e
t r a i n i n g . H ere she h a d l e a r n e d to o v e r v a lu e h e r c r i t i c a l
f a c u l t y and h e r a b i l i t y to o r g a n i z e , and to u n d e rv a lu e h e r
f e e l i n g s and h e r more fe m in in e s i d e . A f t e r c o l l e g e , she b e
came more i n t e r e s t e d i n r e l i g i o n , and f e l t she had a d o p te d
a new s e t o f v a l u e s w hich w ere l e s s r i g i d and more s u i t a b l e
t o h e r a s a woman. However, th e i n t e l l e c t u a l and c r i t i c a l
s i d e , a l t h o u g h l e s s c o n s c i o u s , c o n ti n u e d t o d om inate h e r ,
and e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f in some a s p e c t s o f t h e I n n e r L i g h t . . I n
t h e exam ple c i t e d above, t h i s o v e r - r e s p o n s i b l e s id e shows i t
s e l f i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n to p i c k up t h e p a p e r s on t h e b a s i s
o f a s i n g l e p r e c o n c e iv e d i d e a : " I must be r e s p o n s i b l e and o f
s e r v i c e to o t h e r s a t a l l tim e s " ; w ith o u t t h i s c o m p u lsiv e
e le m e n t, h e r i n t u i t i o n p r o b a b ly w ould have t o l d h e r t h a t
l o s t p a p e r s w ould n o t have been so num erous, so c o n s p i c i o u s ,
60
80 o b v io u s ly d i s c a r d e d , e t c .
P h én o m én o lo g iea l l y , th e f o llo w in g e x p l a n a t i o n seems
p l a u s i b l e . M iss 0 . *s s e l f - c o n c e p t i n c l u d e d , i n a c e n t r a l
p o s i t i o n , th e i d e a o f h e r s e l f a s a good member o f t h e Soc
i e t y o f F r ie n d s — a member, in f a c t , who more th a n th e
a v e ra g e p r e s e n t - d a y Q uaker d e lv e d back i n t o th e e a r l y e x p e r
i e n c e s o f F r i e n d s and t r i e d to r e d i s c o v e r i n them t h e l i f e
an d l i g h t w hich th e y had d i s c o v e r e d . T h is l e d , i n te rm s o f
t h e "enhancem ent o f th e s e l f " c o n c e p t, to g r e a t e f f o r t on
h e r p a r t to f i n d i n h e r i n n e r e x p e r ie n c e t h e k in d o f t h in g
w h ic h would c o n firm t h i s h ig h s e l f - c o n c e p t , and she foun d
i t i n t h e s e " g lim m e rin g s " , w hich were r e a l l y o l d s t a n d a r d s
r e a s s e r t i n g th e m s e lv e s th r o u g h n o n - r a t i o p a l f e e l i n g s . S in c e ,
ho w ev er, th e y were th e o n ly t h in g M iss 0 / fo u n d w i t h i n h e r
s e l f w hich seemed to "come from b e y o n d ," i t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b le
t h a t she c a l l e d them h e r own I n n e r L i g h t . I t i s c l e a r a ls o
t h a t h e r c o n s c io u s s e l f w ould n o t n o rm a lly c h o o se t o do many
o f t h e t h i n g s s u g g e s te d by th e I n n e r V oice ( e . g . p i c k i n g up
th e s l i p s o f p a p e r ) ; she would n o t u s u a l l y be so s e l f - a s s e r
t i v e o r c o n s p ic u o u s . I n s o f a r , t h e n , a s she d i d c a r r y o u t th e
b e h a v i o r s u g g e s te d to h e r , she was a b le to a s s e r t h e r s e l f in
a c c o r d w ith a somewhat r e p r e s s e d s id e o f h e r s e l f , and y e t
d i d so i n a way c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h e r s e l f - c o n c e p t a s a "fem
i n i n e p e rs o n " and a s a "good Q u a k e r."
T h is d i s c u s s i o n r a i s e s o f c o u rs e th e f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n .
61
r a i s e d a l s o by Case G . , What i s a v a l i d " i n n e r l e a d i n g " ?
The answ er to t h i s q u e s t i o n l i e s beyond th e scope o f t h i s
s tu d y . I t i s p r o b a b le t h a t any a d e q u a te answ er would l i e i n
a c o n c e p t o f p e r s o n a l i t y w hich w ould t r a n s c e n d th e phenomen
o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e t h a t a l l human b e h a v i o r i s d i r e c t l y r e
l a t e d t o t h e " p r e s e r v a t i o n and enhancem ent o f th e phenom enal
s e l f , " and w ould in c lu d e som eth in g o f A n g y a l's b e l i e f . t h a t
e v e ry i n d i v i d u a l h a s th e pow er to r e l a t e h i m s e l f m e a n in g f u lly
t o s u p e r i n d i v i d u a l w h o le s, th e m ost i n c l u s i v e o f w h ich we
w o u ld c a l l God. J u n g ia n p s y c h o lo g y can a l s o h e lp us w i t h
t h i s p ro b lem , b u t th e c o m p lex n ess o f — and to some e x t e n t
t h e l a c k o f e x p e r im e n ta l d a t a on — t h e s e t h e o r i e s make i t
i m p o s s ib le f o r us to e x p lo r e them f u r t h e r i n t h i s s tu d y .
I n t h i s c a s e , a s in o t h e r s i n c l u d e d i n th e t h e s i s ,
t h e more p o s i t i v e s i d e o f t h e use o f d e v o ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e
h a s n o t b e en a d e q u a te ly s t r e s s e d . I n th e f o llo w in g c h a p t e r ,
w h ich d e a l s w i t h th e m eaning o f su ch l i t e r a t u r e in th e
t o t a l l i f e - c o u r s e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , some g e n e r a l c o n c l u
s i o n s a r e drawn w hich a r e r e l e v a n t t o th e more p o s i t i v e
a s p e c t s o f t h i s c a s e .
62
CASE G. - Thomas K e lle y
The m a t e r i a l f o r t h i s i l l u s t r a t i v e c a s e i s ta k e n
from p e r s o n a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h th e i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e rn e d ,
an d w ith th e two p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s who have w orked w i t h h e r .
We s h a l l d e s i g n a t e h e r M rs. F* f o r th e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s
s t u d y .
A lth o u g h M rs. F. had r e a d q u i t e w id e ly in d e v o ti o n a l
l i t e r a t u r e and h ad fo u n d much h e lp from a number o f s o u r c e s ,
we s h a l l c o n s i d e r h e r e o n ly h e r use o f Thomas K e lle y * s
T esta m e n t o f D e v o tio n and i t s meaning f o r h e r , Mrs. F. r e a d
t h i s book a t a tim e o f t r i a l f o r h e r — a tim e o f i n s e c u r i t y ,
f i n a n c i a l l y and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , and a tim e o f p h y s i c a l s u f
f e r i n g . She fo u n d h e r s e l f in a d e q u a te t o make th e d e c i s i o n s
w i t h which she was f a c e d and i t was n a t u r a l t h a t she sh o u ld
t u r n to p r a y e r and d e v o t i o n a l r e a d i n g f o r s u p p o rt and g u i
d a n c e . Through th e r e a d i n g o f books by G lenn C la r k and
Emmett Fox she h ad come to have g r e a t r e l i a n c e i n th e e f f i
c ac y o f p r a y e r , b u t i t was n o t u n t i l Thomas K e l l e y ’ s w r i t i n g
became known to h e r t h a t she began to p u t much t r u s t in
w hat he c a l l s " i n n e r g u i d a n c e ." I t i s th e meaning o f t h i s
r e l i a n c e on h e r own " i n n e r g u id a n c e " t h a t we s h a l l t r y to
e x p lo r e p s y c h o d y n a m ic a lly .
I n Mrs. F . ’ s s t a t e o f i n s e c u r i t y and p h y s i c a l d i s
t r e s s , i t was n a t u r a l t h a t such a p a s s a g e a s th e f o llo w in g
w ould have a g r e a t a p p e a l to h e r :
63
Do we l i v e i n th e s te a d y p e a c e o f God, a p e a c e down a t
t h e v e ry d e p th s o f o u r s o u l s , w here a l l s t r a i n i s gone
and God i s a l r e a d y v i c t o r o v e r th e w o rld , a l r e a d y v i c
t o r o v e r o u r w e a k n e sse s? T h is l i f e , t h i s a b i d i n g , en
d u r in g p e a c e t h a t n e v e r f a i l s , t h i s s e r e n e pow er and
u n h u r r i e d c o n q u e s t. Inw ard c o n q u e s t o v e r o u r s e l v e s ,
o u tw a rd c o n q u e s t o v e r th e w o r ld , i s meant to be o u r s .
I t i s a l i f e t h a t i s f r e e d from s t r a i n and a n x i e t y ahd
h u r r y , f o r som ething o f th e Cosmic P a t i e n c e o f God
becomes o u rs.^ ®
F o r Thomas K e l le y , a p r e s e n t - d a y Q uaker, th e an sw er to
e v e r y o n e ’ s lo n g in g f o r p e a c e l a y in ab an don ing o n e s e l f to
t h e T r u th w hich l i e s w i t h i n , to t h e Cosmic Power w hich we
c a n t a p i f we w i l l o n ly l i s t e n ;
When we say Yes o r No to c a l l s f o r s e r v i c e on t h e
b a s i s o f heady d e c i s i o n s , we have to g iv e r e a s o n s , to
o u r s e l v e s and to o t h e r s . B ut when we say Yes o r No to
c a l l s , on th e b a s i s o f i n n e r g u id a n c e and w h is p e r e d
p ro m p tin g s o f en couragem ent from th e C e n te r o f o u r l i f e ,
o r on th e b a s i s o f a l a c k o f any in w a rd " r i s i n g " o f
t h a t L i f e to e n co u rag e us i n th e c a l l , we have no r e a
son to g i v e , e x c e p t o n e— th e w i l l o f God as_we d i s c e r n
i t . Then we have begun to l i v e i n g u i d a n c e . 4^ -
By n a t u r e M rs. F. is, an i n t u i t i v e ty p e o f p e r s o n ;
a l s o she i s more th a n u s u a l l y open to f o llo w in g o t h e r p e o
p l e ’ s s u g g e s t i o n s c o n c e rn in g h e r own l i f e , and som etim es
h a s d i f f i c u l t y in making up h e r own m ind. Thus i t was to be
e x p e c te d , in h e r s t a t e o f g r e a t n e e d , t h a t she w ould t r y to
f o l l o w Thoffls.s K e l l e y ’ s a d v i c e , s i n c e he had d e s c r i b e d so
b e a u t i f u l l y h e r own d e e p e s t l o n g i n g s , and s i n c e h i s method
15 Thomas R. K e lle y , A T estam en t o f D e v o tio n (New York;
H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s . 1 9 4 1 .) p p . 1 1 9 f.
16 I b i d . p . 124.
64
f i t t e d h e r n a t u r a l g i f t s and i n c l i n a t i o n s . A lso o t h e r devo
t i o n a l r e a d i n g w hich she was do ing a t th e tim e , m o stly
Emmett Fox an d U n ity p u b l i c a t i o n s , s t r e n g t h e n e d h e r f e e l i n g
t h a t l i s t e n i n g to t h e " i n n e r v o ic e " w ould b r i n g th e p e a c e
and freedom she d e s ir e d *
I n th e y e a r t h a t f o llo w e d th e r e a d i n g of th e K e lle y
book, Mrs* F. d i d r e l y more and more on w hat seemed to h e r
i n n e r g u id a n c e . She was n o t a b le to t h i n k th r o u g h h e r p r o b
lem s l o g i c a l l y and c o n s c i o u s l y , and th e r e l i a n c e on th e
i n n e r p ro m p tin g s became more m arked. However, a s t h i s r e l i
an ce became g r e a t e r , she fo u n d she was l e s s a b le t o combine
W ith i t th e use o f c o n s c io u s s e a r c h i n g and th e c o m p lete
w i l l i n g n e s s to f o l lo w any o f th e s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s open
to h e r a t t h e tim e — b o th o f w hich w ere u rg e d by most w r i t e r s
a s n e c e s s a r y p r e l i m i n a r i e s t o r e c e i v i n g ; t r u e g u id a n c e . T h is
l e d to a c o n s c i o u s d i s t r u s t o f th e v o i c e , and to v a c i l l a t i o n
b e tw ee n f o l lo w in g and n o t f o l lo w in g i t s a d v ic e . She p r o v i d e s
th e f o llo w in g i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e e x t e n t to w hich th e v o ic e
f i g u r e d i n h e r d e c i s i o n s :
A f t e r a m ee tin g a t th e c h u r c h , I th o u g h t i t would be
n i c e to sp e ak w ith K.H* — we a r e good f r i e n d s and I
l i k e to be w i t h h e r . However, t h e i n n e r v o ic e se em e d .to
t e l l me n o t to go a h e a d . In t h i s i n s t a n c e I w ent a g a i n s t
th e i n n e r v o i c e , and w a i te d a ro u n d w h ile K.H* t a l k e d
w i t h some o t h e r p e o p le . However, when she was th ro u g h ,
I fo u n d she had o t h e r p l a n s v e ry soo n, and I f e l t a s
th o u g h p e r h a p s I sh o u ld n t have w a i te d . I n t h i s c a s e .
65
t h e i n n e r v o ic e may have been r i g h t
G r a d u a lly she b eg an t o se n se t h a t some o f t h e more
im p o r t a n t d e c i s i o n s made by t h e v o i c e , w hich she h ad f o l lo w
e d , a c t u a l l y w ent a g a i n s t t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f b o t h h e r s e l f
and h e r c h i l d r e n . The more she r e l i e d a b s o l u t e l y on i t , and
t h e more she a llo w e d i t to d e c id e i n s i g n i f i c a n t m a t t e r s o f
d e t a i l , th e l e s s c o n f i d e n t and more a n x io u s she became* A
w is e m i n i s t e r whom she c o n s u l t e d s t r o n g l y a d v is e d h e r
a g a i n s t c o n ti n u e d r e l i a n c e on t h e v o ice * F i n a l l y , a t th e
tim e o f t h i s w r i t i n g , she h a s come to f e e l t h a t th e v o ic e i s
an e x p r e s s i o n o f a p a t h o l o g i c a l r a t h e r th a n a h e a l t h y k in d
o f r e l i g i o n , and un d er t h e g u id a n c e o f a w ise t h e r a p i s t , she
i s f i n d i n g o t h e r and more s o l i d b a s e s on w hich t o g u id e h e r
l i f e *
I n p s y c h o l o g i c a l te r m s , th e dynam ics h e re a r e n o t h a r d
to s e e . The g r e a t d e s i r e to b r in g back to h e a l t h b o t h h e r
p h y s i c a l and h e r p sy ch jc s e l f l e d h e r to a d o p t any p rog ram
w h ic h o f f e r e d th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f u l f i l l m e n t . However, i t
i s im p o r ta n t to p o i n t o u t t h a t w h a te v e r program she a d o p te d
h a d n o t o n ly to f i t h e r tem p eram en t, a s we i n d i c a t e d , b u t
i t h a d a l s o to conform to h e r s e l f - c o n c e p t . T h is c o n s t i t u t e d ,
and s t i l l c o n s t i t u t e s , o n e o f th e b a s i c p rob lem s o f h e r com
in g to s e lf -k n o w le d g e , f o r M rs. F . ’ s c o n c e p t o f h e r s b l f i s
17 B ased on c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h Mrs* F,
66
t h a t o f a, d e e p ly s p i r i t u a l , alw ays l o v i n g p e r s o n who t r i e s
t o f o l lo w th e w i l l o f God she h a s known i t o r r e a d a b o u t
i t i n r e l i g i o u s c i r c l e s and in d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e .
Thomas K e lle y was o b v io u s ly a d e e p ly s p i r i t u a l w r i t e r ,
h i g h l y recommended by n e a r l y a l l t h e p e r s o n s whom Mrs. P#
r e s p e c t e d . H is d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e f r u i t s o f f o llo w in g th e
i n n e r l i g h t f i t t e d w e l l w i t h th e v i s i o n she h ad o f h e r s e l f
i n h e r most i d e a l i s t i c moments. I f Thomas K e l l e y *s m ethod
h a d "w o rk e d ", she c o u ld have had p e a c e and h a p p in e s s on h e r
own te r m s , i n a c c o rd a n c e w i t h h e r own p r e s e n t s e l f - c o n c e p t .
B ut t h i s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , d id n o t seem to be th e way she was
m eant to a t t a i n p e a c e .
T here i s much y e t t o be l e a r n e d a b o u t M rs. P . ; we do
n o t y e t u n d e r s t a n d , f o r i n s t a n c e , j u s t w hat i t i s i n h e r
u n c o n s c io u s o r " u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d " p sy c h e t h a t d i d g b v e rn
th e m essages o f th e i n n e r v o i c e . But enough i s known to i n
d i c a t e r a t h e r c l e a r l y t h e dynam ics w hich l e d to h e r use o f
th e T estam en t o f D e v o tio n .
T h ere i s an a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t i n c o n n e c ti o n w i t h M r s . P . ’ s
u se o f G lenn C l a r k ’ s I. W ill L i f t Up Mine Eyes w hich i s i n
s t r u c t i v e f o r o u r s tu d y . When t r y i n g to f o l l o w Mr. C l a r k ’ s
a d v ic e s in p r a y i n g , s h e . f e l t a p a r t i c u l a r u rg e to a c h ie v e
th e k in d o f a b s o l u t e f o r g i v e n e s s w h ic h he a s s e r t e d was a
n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e to s u c c e s s f u l p r a y e r . H ere a r e some
67
e x c e r p t s from h i s s e c t i o n on f o r g i v e n e s s :
I f you h a t e j u s t one i n d i v i d u a l i n th e w o r ld , by j u s t
t h a t much you a re s e p a r a t e d from God H im self*
I f anyone h a s sin n e d a g a i n s t you and you have n o t f o r
g iv e n him , you a r e h a t i n g and d e s p i s i n g God. . . . Your
f i r s t d u ty i s t o f o r g i v e o th e r s # Turn to a l l t h o s e who
have t r e s p a s s e d a g a i n s t you and f o r g i v e them.
Open y o u r s o u l w h ile t h e lo v e o f C h r i s t — " th e acme o f
a l l s p i r i t u a l lo v e " — th e lo v e w h ic h h a s t h e p o w e r 't o
s a v e , and redeem th e m ost h o p e le s s o f s i n n e r s - - t a k e s
c o m p le te dom inion o v e r e v ery a r e a o f y o u r l i f e . i ®
H ere i s a c h a l l e n g e to a b s o l u t e l o v e , b u t a lo v e w h ich i s
to be a c h ie v e d e v i d e n t l y m o stly by t h e u se o f th e w i l l . In
t r y i n g to a c h ie v e i t , a s Mrs* F# now c l e a r l y r e a l i z e s , she
s u p p r e s s e d o r f o r c e d o u t o f h e r a w a re n e s s a l l f e e l i n g s o f
d i s l i k e o r c r i t i c i s m o r h a t r e d w hich she had o f o t h e r s . T h is
a c t i o n , a s p s y c h o l o g i s t s know so w e l l , d o e s n o t d i s p o s e o f
t h e s e n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s , b u t m erely c a u s e s them to become
o p e r a t i v e i n ways w hich a r e n o t u n d e r t h e c o n s c io u s c o n t r o l
o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . I n p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l te rm s , t h e s e u n a c
c e p t a b l e a s p e c t s o f th e s e l f w ere v i g o r o u s l y e x c lu d e d from
th e s e l f - c o n c e p t , b u t th ey wer^e c e rth in ly among t h e f a c t o r s
w h ic h have r e - e n t e r e d Mrs. F.-Vs t h o u g h ts and b e h a v io r by
means o f th e i n n e r v o i c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y w here th e l e a d i n g s
o f t h e v o ic e w ere s e l f - d e f e a t i n g o r d e s t r u c t i v e . H ere th e n
i s a r a t h e r c l e a r - c u t i n s t a n c e i n w h ich d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e
18 G lenn C l a r k , 1 W ill L i f t Up Mine Eyes (New Y ork: H a rp e r
and B r o t h e r s . 1 9 3 7 .) p p . 5 1 -2 , 34.
68
h a s a c t u a l l y h e lp e d to b lo c k th e e n l a r g i n g o f t h e s e l f - c o n
c e p t and th u s th e gpowth o f th e i n d i v i d u a l . T h is i n s t a n c e
i s o f e s p e c i a l im p o rta n c e b e c a u se so much d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r
a t u r e s t r e s s e s t h e need f o r lo v e and f o r g i v e n e s s , b u t th e
m ethods w hich a r e o f f e r e d to a c h ie v e t h e s e i d e a l s t a t e s s e l
dom ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t l e v e l s o f p e r s o n a l i t y d e e p e r th a n im
m e d ia te a w a re n e s s . Modern p s y c h o th e r a p y , i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c
t i o n to t h i s r e l i g i o u s e m p h a sis, h a s u r g e d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f
r e c o g n i z i n g and i n a c e r t a i n se n se " a c c e p t in g " o n e ’ s d i s
l i k e s and h a t e s a s a p a r t o f o n e s e l f . Only t h u s , i t s a y s ,
c a n th e i n d i v i d u a l grow g r a d u a l l y i n t o a s t a t e o f lo v e and
f o r g i v e n e s s from th e whole b e in g .
CASE H. - Romans 2
F or r e a s o n s w h ich have been s t a t e d a b o v e, most o f th e
c a s e s and i l l u s t r a t i o n s in t h i s t h e s i s d e a l w ith th e m isuse
o f r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e . T h is c a s e , ta k e n from a book by
Jo h n S u th e r la n d B o n n e ll^ ^ , d e a l s w i t h th e p o s i t i v e use o f a
s e l e c t i o n from th e B i b l e . I t was u se d i n a c o u n s e l i n g s e s
s i o n c o n d u c te d by Mr. B o n n e ll, and was i n j e c t e d a t j u s t th e
r i g h t " p s y c h o l o g ic a l m oment." I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t an i n t e r
p r e t a t i v e s ta te m e n t from t h e c o u n s e l o r , w i th o u t any r e f e r
ence to th e B i b l e , would have a c c o m p lis h e d th e f i n a l r e s u l t
19 John S u t h e r la n d B o n n e ll, P a s t o r a l P s y c h i a t r y (New Y ork:
H a rp er and B r o t h e r s , 1938) pp . 5 8 -6 1 .
69
j u s t a s w e l l . However, t h e r e a r e u n d o u b te d ly many i n s t a n c e s
in w hich an i n d i v i d u a l h a p p e n s upon a p i e c e o f d e v o t i o n a l
l i t e r a t u r e a t j u s t th e tim e when i t c a n be o f most s e r v i c e
to him , and o f t h e s e i n s t a n c e s t h i s c a s e can be a good
i l l u s t r a t i o n .
We a re t o l d t h a t th e c o u n s e l e e , whom we s h a l l c a l l
Mr# A#, comes i n to see t h e c o u n s e l o r c o n c e r n in g h i s w i f e .
He f e e l s she l a c k s d i s c i p l i n e . A f t e r d i s c u s s i n g th e w if e f o r
a w h i l e , th e c o u n s e l o r a s k s Mr. A* to t e l l him a l i t t l e
a b o u t h i m s e l f . He p r o c e e d s t o . do t h i s , and s a y s , among o t h e r
t h i n g s , " I have a b a d te m p e r " ; "iVm v e ry s e l f i s h , t o o " ; " I ’m
n o t v e ry c o n s i d e r a t e , " I su p p o s e , o f my w ife and c h i l d r e n . "
B u t he comes b a ck to h i s w i f e * g pro b lem and a s k s a g a in i f
a n y th i n g can be done a b o u t h e r . I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t
t h e c o u n s e l o r opens h i s B i b le to Homans 2 and a s k s t h e coun
s e l e e to r e a d v e r s e s 1 to 6 . Mr.A* * s f i r s t r e s p o n s e , a f t e r
r e a d i n g , i s , "W ell, what a b o u t i t ? " , t o w hich th e c o u n s e l o r
r e p l i e s , "Read a lo u d once more v e r s e s 1 and 3 ."
" T h e r e fo r e th o u a r t i n e x c u s a b l e , 0 man, w ho so ev er th o u
a r t t h a t j u d g e s t ; f o r w h e re in th o u j u d g e s t a n o t h e r , th o u
condem nest t h y s e l f ; f o r th o u t h a t j u d g e s t do e s t th e
same t h i n g s .
"And t h i n k e s t th o u t h i s , 0 man, t h a t j u d g e s t them w hich
do such t h i n g s , and d o e s t th e same, t h a t th o u s h a l t
e s c a p e th e judgm ent o f God?"
F i n a l l y he s a y s , "My own l i f e l a c k s d i s c i p l i n e . # # I h a v e
h a t e d m y se lf f o r i t , and I g u e s s I have b e en s t r i k i n g a t
t h e same t h i n g in my w i f e . " P resu m ab ly th r o u g h m e d i t a t i n g
70
on th e m eaning o f t h e s e v e r s e s th e c o u n s e le e came to g e n
u in e i n s i g h t i n t o h i s own p r o j e c t i o n s , and beg an to see th e
p ro b lem a s a j o i n t one and n o t j u s t t h a t o f h i s w i f e .
P h é n o m én o lo g ie a l l y t h i s i s an e x c e l l e n t exam ple o f
t h e ”e n l a r g i n g o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t ” w h ic h , a c c o r d in g to
C a rl R o g e rs , i s t h e o n ly r o a d t o g ro w th and m a t u r i t y . I t i s
th e b a s i c aim o f c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d th e r a p y to p r o v i d e th e a t - _ ;
m osphere in w h ich t h i s e n l a r g i n g o f one*s view o f o n e s e l f
c a n ta k e p l a c e . I n B o n n e ll* s c a s e i t i s im p o s s ib le to se p a
r a t e th e e f f e c t o f th e S c r i p t u r e a s su c h from th e a tm o sp h ere
o f a c c e p ta n c e w h ich B o n n e ll h i m s e l f m ust have p r o v i d e d f o r
t h i s c o u n s e l i n g .
I t i s i n c a s e s su ch a s t h i s one t h a t good r e l i g i o n
and good p s y c h o th e r a p y go r i g h t a lo n g t o g e t h e r . However, i t
s h o u ld be n o t e d t h a t th e S c r i p t u r e c i t e d i s , in th e use
B o n n e ll makes o f i t , a t e a c h i n g a b o u t human r e l a t i o n s h i p s ;
th e t h e i s t i c e le m e n t i s n o t p r e d o m in a n t. I t i s more in
th o s e i n s t a n c e s i n w hich th e c o n c e p t and w o rs h ip o f Q-od p l a y
l e a d i n g r o l e s t h a t d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e and modern p sy c h o
th e r a p y te n d to d i v e r g e . 20
20 See R o b e rt H. B o n th iu s , C h r i s t i a n P a t h s to S e lf-A c c e p
ta n c e (New York: King * s Crown P r e s s , 194ÏÏ7 f o r an i n
t e r e s t i n g t r e a t m e n t o f th e o lo g y from th e p s y c h o t h e r a
p e u t i c p o i n t o f view .
71
CASE I . - M e i s t e r E c k h a rt
The s o u rc e o f i n f o r m a t i o n on t h i s c a s e i s an i n d i v i
d u a l w e l l - v e r s e d i n b o th d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e and i n d e p th
p s y c h o lo g y who drew b o th upon h e r own know ledge o f th e c a se
and upon th e i n s i g h t s o f a n o t h e r in f o r m a n t, even c l o s e r to
t h e p e r s o n c o n c e rn e d . The w r i t e r h a s h ad no d i r e c t c o n t a c t
w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t h i s c a s e .
T h is p e r s o n , whom we s h a l l d e s i g n a t e a s Mr. Y . , i s a
man o f a b o u t 45, a p r o f e s s o r i n a f i e l d r e q u i r i n g i n t e n s e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e i n t e l l e c t .
Some y e a r s a g o , Mr. Y* began t o be i n t e r e s t e d i n d e
v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e and m y s tic is m and became an e x trem e de
v o t e e o f th e m y s t i c a l way. He r e a d e x t e n s i v e l y and i n t e n
s i v e l y i n th e l i t e r a t u r e . I n c l u d i n g such w r i t e r s a s J .N .
G-rou, P r a n p o is de S a l e s , Thomas K e lle y , Dorn Chapman, F a t h e r
B a k e r, M e i s t e r E c k h a r t, and th e a u th o r of The Cloud o f Un
k n ow ing. The l a t t e r t h r e e w ere h i s e s p e c i a l f a v o r i t e s . F or
a p e r i o d o f two. y e a r s o r more he m e d i t a t e d two o r t h r e e
h o u r s d a i l y ; h i s m e d i t a t i o n s were o f th e d i s c u r s i v e o r
t h i n k i n g t y p e , and th e y s e r v e d w e ll to c o n v in c e him o f th e
r e a l i t y o f God, and o f h i s n e ed to s e r v e w hat he c o n s i d e r e d
t h e H ig h e s t Good. C alm ness and i m p e r t u r b a b i l i t y w ere among
th e v i r t u e s w hich he t r i e d to c u l t i v a t e . From h i s r e a d i n g
he te n d e d to s e l e c t t h o s e t e a c h i n g s w hich e m p h asized th e
r i g o r o u s n e s s and r e a s o n a b l e n e s s w hich f i t t e d h i s own
72
n a tu re and he developed th e se q u a l i t i e s to an even h ig h e r
degree than he had p o ssesse d them n a t u r a l l y . The follow ing
q u o t a t i o n from E c k h a rt i s a good exam ple o f t h e k i n d o f
passage which supported h i s n a tu r a l te n d e n c y to emphasize
th e w i l l and th e i n t e l l e c t :
. , . th e re i s no n eed f o r th e mind to tu rn elsewhere
Cthan to God) and i t never a tte n d s to c r e a tu r e s w ithout
s u f fe rin g v io le n ce and being h u rt and p e rv e rte d Cby the
d i s t r a c t i o i ^ . When th e mind has once .been sp o ile d in
youth, or any o th e r age f o r th a t m a tte r, every e f f o r t
should be made to c o r r e c t i t , to withdraw i t to i t s
p ro p e r sphere and to t r a i n i t th e r e . However n a tu r a l
and n a tiv e God i s to the mind, once the mind has d ig r e s
sed, taken ro o t in c r e a t u r e s , and been p e r v e rte d by them
and become accustomed to them, i t i s p r o p o rtio n a te ly in
f e c te d and en feeb led , handicapped f o r i t s p o b lp r func
t i o n s , so th a t every e f f o r t one may : make i s always too
l i t t l e to e f f e c t the mind’ s r e s t o r a t i o n . 21
Of e s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , h e r e i s E ck h art* s em phasis on d e - -
ta c h m e n t from “a t t e n d i n g to c r e a t u r e s , “ s in c e Hr. Y . , even
b e fo re he began to rea d d e v o tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e ^ %as g r e a t l y "
la c k in g in f e e l in g , o r in the e x p ressio n of f e e l in g .
B ecause o f t h i s s e r i o u s d e f i c i e n c y in th e d ev elo p m en t
o f h i s “f e e l i n g s i d e , “ a l l o f Mr. Y . *s d e c i s i o n s and h i s
ju d g m en ts o f o t h e r s w ere made on a c o l d l y l o g i c a l b a s i s ,
and he had d i f f i c u l t y in v i s u a l i z i n g r e a l i t y i n any o t h e r
Way. Thus i t was n o t u n e x p e c te d t h a t he b eg an to have d i f f i
c u l t y i n h i s m a r r ia g e . A c co rd in g to t h e a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n .
21 Raymond B e rn a rd B la k n e y , t r a n s l a t o r , M e i s t e r E c k h a r t « A
Modern T r a n s l a t i o n (New Y ork: H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s . 1941)
p p . 31f . B r a c k e te d a d d i t i o n s by th e t r a n s l a t o r .
73
he was m e n ta lly c r u e l to h i s w i f e , even s a d i s t i c a t tim e s ,
y e t w ith o u t e v e r coming to f e e l h i s own g u i l t i n t h e s i t
u a t i o n . From h i s l o g i c a l , u n f e e l i n g p o i n t o f view , h i s w ife
seemed w h olly to blam e. B ecause o f h i s i n a b i l i t y to see b e
y ond t h a t p o i n t , th e m a r r ia g e e v e n t u a l l y r e s u l t e d i n d i
v o r c e . Somehow Mr* Y. was a b le to s e l e c t from h i s e x t e n s i v e
d e v o t i o n a l r e a d i n g th o s e e le m e n ts w hich s u p p o r te d h i s t h i n k
in g c r i t i c a l f a c u l t y , and w hich p r o v i d e d a t h e o r e t i c a l r a
t i o n a l e even f o r h i s m a r i t a l c r u e l t y , and he seemed to p a s s
o v e r c o m p le te ly th o s e e le m e n ts w h ich w ould have c a l l e d a t
t e n t i o n to th e f e e l i n g s o f h i m s e l f an d o t h e r s . I t i s s i g n i
f i c a n t t h a t he som etim es d i d have s t r o n g n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s
to w a rd s o t h e r s who he f e l t h ad f a l l e n from h i s s t a n d a r d o f
” s p i r i t u a l i t y , “ b u t t h e s e ju d g m e n ts, a lt h o u g h p r o b a b l y un
c o n s c i o u s l y d e te r m in e d , w ere alw ay s j u s t i f i e d by him on th e
b a s i s o f o b j e c t i v e f a c t s . He seems t o have an i n o r d i n a t e
s e n s e o f b e in g r i g h t w h ich e x t e n s i v e r e a d in g and m e d i t a t i o n
h a s n o t d e n te d .
The key to th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f Mr. Y,
seems to l i e in r e c o g n i z i n g th e p re d o m in a n t em phasis on th e
i n t e l l e c t , and on a s e l f - c o n c e p t w hich i s c o n c e rn e d a lm o st
e x c l u s i v e l y w ith t h a t s i d e o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y . A su rv e y o f
h i s fa m ily b a c k g ro u n d an d e a r l y e x p e r ie n c e may h e l p to c l a r
i f y th e p i c t u r e .
Mr. Y , ’ s m other and f a t h e r w ere n e v e r happy t o g e t h e r ,
74
and t h e r e seems to have b e en a d e a r t h o f a f f e c t i o n i n a l l
t h e fa m ily r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The f a t h e r , s p o i l e d t o some ex
t e n t by h i s w i f e , was a v e ry s u c c e s s f u l s c i e n t i s t and t e n d
ed t o be d o m in e e rin g . He was away a good d e a l o f th e tim e ,
so th e m o th er t u r n e d to t h e so n , who was an o n ly c h i l d . F o r
t h i s and o t h e r r e a s o n s , t h e c h i l d d e v e lo p e d t h e h a b i t o f a d
j u s t i n g to a d u l t s r a t h e r th a n to h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s . F or
i n s t a n c e , i n h i s e a r l y s c h o o l y e a r s , he alw ay s came back
l a t e i n th e f a l l a f t e r summer v a c a t i o n s w i t h h i s m o th e r and
g r a n d p a r e n t s , w hich h e lp e d to a c c e n t u a t e h i s l a c k o f a d j u s t
m ent to c h i l d r e n o f h i s own a g e . H is c h ild h o o d was m olded
p a r t l y by h i s d e s i r e to be a "model c h i l d , " , w hich e v i d e n t l y
was t h e w a y :h e .c h o s e to m a i n t a i n a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith
h i s m o th er . When v ery young he s t a r t e d to r e p r e s s h i s r e a l
f e e l i n g s and to o k r e f u g e in " i d e a s . " H is f a t h e r had once
t o l d him t h a t when he became a c o l l e g e g ra d u a te , he w ould s i t
down and t a l k w i t h him; o n ly th e n c o u ld th e y d i s c u s s s c i e n
t i f i c s u b j e c t s t o g e t h e r . Thus he was f o r c e d to com pete w i t h
h i s f a t h e r , who e v i d e n t l y showed him l i t t l e r e a l a f f e c t i o n .
The r e l i g i o u s b a c k g ro u n d was C h r i s t i a n S c i e n c e , w hich
a l s o som etim es c a u s e s a w ith d r a w a l o f th e i n d i v i d u a l from
th e f u l l warmth o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . ( I n o r d e r t o m ain
t a i n and f o r t i f y t h e i r t h e o l o g i c a l b e l i e f in th e v i r t u a l
n o n - e x i s t e n c e o f e v i l , d i s e a s e , s i n e t c . , some C h r i s t i a n
S c i e n t i s t s have to i n s u l a t e th e m s e lv e s a g a i n s t f e e l i n g th e
75
f u l l b r u n t o f th e s u f f e r i n g and u n h a p p in e s s w hich e x i s t s
a ro u n d them; t h i s i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e i r a t t e m p t s to
i n s u l a t e t h e i r c o n s c io u s s e l v e s a g a i n s t th e i n n e r e v i l
t h o u g h ts and d e s i r e s w hich r i s e from w i t h i n th e m .22) As a
c o n s c i o u s l y r e l i g i o u s p e r s o n , h i s l o v e seemed to be " in
th e o r y " r a t h e r th a n from t h e h e a r t .
From h i s e a r l i e s t c h ild h o o d and up th ro u g h h i s y o u th ,
Y. b e in g an o n ly c h i l d and somewhat s p o i l e d by h i s w e a lth y
f a m i l y , was a b l e to c o n tin u e i n a r e l a t i v e l y e g o c e n t r i c ad
j u s tm e n t to l i f e . A ll t h e s e f a c t o r s t o g e t h e r a llo w e d him to
make h i s a d ju s tm e n t in term s, o f h i s m ost s u p e r i o r f a c u l t y ,
t h a t o f t h i n k i n g , and d i d n o t r e q u i r e t h a t he d e v e lo p h i s
d e e p e r f e e l i n g s o f s y m p a th e tic u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
From t h i s p i c t u r e , t h e n , t h e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l p a t t e r n
em erges r a t h e r c l e a r l y . The phenom enal s e l f i s t h a t o f a
t h i n k i n g i n d i v i d u a l who i s o c c a s i o n a l l y in v a d e d by n e g a t iv e
f e e l i n g s w h ic h , how ever, a r e f u l l y j u s t i f i e d o u tw a rd ly .T h e
s e l f - c o n c e p t i s c e n t e r e d a ro u n d th e p i c t u r e o f a d e e p ly
s p i r i t u a l man who t h i n k s he s e e s , th r o u g h h i s lo n g m é d i t a - ;
t i o n and h i s g r e a t pow ers o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n , what i s s p i r i
t u a l l y r i g h t . T h is phenom enal s e l f seems to have d e v e lo p e d
22 I t sh o u ld b e em p h asized t h a t t h i s i s n o t a s ta te m e n t
a b o u t C h r i s t i a n S c i e n t i s t s in g e n e r a l , b u t i s b a s e d on
th e o b s e r v a t i o n o f some members o f t h a t g ro u p by th e
w r i t e r and t h e in f o rm a n t i n t h i s c a s e .
76
r a t h e r sm oothly from c h ild h o o d and, b e c a u s e i t h a s b r o u g h t
s u c c e s s a lo n g most l i n e s — w ith t h e m ajo r e x c e p ti o n o f th e
m a r r i a g e — h a s become even more c r y s t a l l i z e d and r i g i d .
( H is lo n g p r a c t i c e o f d e v o t i o n a l m e d i t a t i o n , and t h e f a c t
t h a t he i s c o n s i d e r e d so m eth in g o f an a u t h o r i t y i n " th e l i f e
o f th e s p i r i t " h a s made him more and more c o n v in c e d o f h i s
own i n e v i t a b l e p r o g r e s s i o n i n t h a t l i f e . ) H is b a s i c n eed
f o r s e l f - e s t e e m seems w e l l enough s a t i s f i e d w ith h i s p r e s e n t
c h a r a c t e r and mode o f a d ju s tm e n t t h a t a f a i l u r e i n one a r e a
was n o t s u f f i c i e n t to c a u s e a breakdow n o r even a s e r i o u s
q u e s t i o n i n g o f th e p r e s e n t s e l f - c o n c e p t . T here a r e e v id e n c e s
t h a t i n c r e a s i n g l o n e l i n e s s and s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n i s making
h i s a d ju s tm e n t on t h e p r e s e n t l e v e l more d i f f i c u l t , and i t
i s p o s s i b l e t h a t o u t e r e v e n t s may s t i l l b r i n g a b o u t a c r i s i s
w h ich c o u ld c a u s e a r e v a l u a t i o n o f h i s e n t i r e mode o f l i f e
and t h i n k i n g . An even more s e r i o u s n e u r o s i s i s a l s o q u i t e
p o s s i b l e o f c o u r s e . i
C H A P T E R V
PSYGHODXNAMIOS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE TOTAL LIFE-COURSE
T h is s tu d y would n o t be c o m p le te w ith o u t an a tt e m p t
to p l a c e i n t h e b r o a d e r c o n t e x t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s l i f e -
c o u r s e th e s p e c i f i c d y n a m ic s .o f a p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d in h i s
l i f e . The c a s e h i s t o r y m ethod o f s tu d y h a s i n a c e r t a i n
se n s e alw ays done t h i s , and A ndras Angyal h a s made even
more e x p l i c i t t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r v ie w in g p e r s o n a l i t y " a s i t
e v o lv e s th r o u g h tim e .
The c o u r s e o f l i f e a s G e s t a l t . The a tt e m p t to- u n d e r
s t a n d t h e s p e c i f i c psychodynam ics: i s a lw ay s a id e d by a f u l l e r
know ledge o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s p a s t . W ith su c h kn o w led g e,' t h e
p a t t e r n s o f n e u r o t i c b e h a v io r can be more e a s i l y se e n and
i s o l a t e d . I n a d d i t i o n , such knowledge can be o f h e l p , i n
t h i s stu d y f o r i n s t a n c e , i n th e p ro b lem o f e v a l u a t i n g th e
e x p e r ie n c e w i t h d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e —; t h a t i s , in l e a r n
in g to what e x t e n t and i n w hat way t h e use o f t h e l i t e r a
t u r e a id e d o r im peded t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s s e a r c h f o r m a t u r i t y
and s p i r i t u a l a t t a i n m e n t . A ngyal s t a t e s c o n v in c in g ly th e
g r e a t im p o rta n c e o f t o t a l l i f e - g o a l s i n t h e develo p m en t o f
th e p e r s o n a l i t y , and t h u s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h a t
1 A ng y al, o p . c i t . p . 343#
78
p e r s o n a l i t y :
I f one a llo w s t h e l i f e c o u rs e o f a p e r s o n to p a s s b e f o r e
h i s e y es one s e e s him t o i l i n g to r e a c h now one and now
a n o t h e r g o a l . . . . Beyond th e g o a l s to' be a c h i e v e d .a n d
t h e s t a t e s to be r e a c h e d t h e p e r s o n h a s , h ow ever, t h e
b r o a d e r m o ti v a t i o n o f sh a p in g h i s l i f e i n t o a c o h e r e n t
m e a n in g fu l w h o le ..T h e c o u rs e o f l i f e i s n o t e n t i r e l y
i n s t r u m e n t a l f o r a c h i e v i n g c e r t a i n g o a l s b u t h a s , so to
s a y , an i n t r i n s i c o r s e l f - p u r p o s e . The c o u rs e o f l i f e i s ,
i n a Way, com p arab le to a work o f a r t w hich one c r e a t e s ,
s h a p e s , and p e r f e c t s by l i v i n g i t . . * .T he p e r s o n may
be o n ly v a g u e ly c o n s c io u s o f t h i s , b u t i t s t i l l seems
t h a t th e l i f e h i s t o r y , t h e work w hich he c r e a t e s by
l i v i n g i t , i s h i s g r e a t e s t c o n c e rn .
The d e s i r e f o r s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n , a te n d e n c y to shape
o n e ’ s l i f e c o u rs e i n t o a m e a n in g fu l w h o le , g i v e s c o h e r
ence and u n i t y to t h e l i f e h i s t o r y . The p e r s o n a l d e v e l --
opment t h u s becomes a p r o c e s s o f G e s t a l t f o r m a t i o n . ^
Thus i t i s a b a s i c t h e s i s o f t h i s stu d y t h a t o n ly by s e e in g
an e p is o d e i n th e c o n te x t o f th e t o t a l l i f e h i s t o r y can any
v a l i d e v a l u a t i o n be made.
D e v o tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e and t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f con
f l i c t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y th e d a t a a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e to make a
th o r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e t o t a l l i f e - h i s t o r y a s p e c t o f
th e p ro b le m . However, w i t h i n t h e w r i t e r ’ s a c q u a in t a n c e a re
s e v e r a l i n d i v i d u a l s whose e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r
a t u r e o v e r a lo n g p e r i o d o f tim e seem t o have p a r a l l e l e d one
a n o t h e r ; and th e sequence o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s h a s c o n s i d e r
a b le r e l e v a n c e f o r t h i s a s p e c t o f th e p ro b le m . T h is seq uence
and i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e w i l l be o u t l i n e d b elo w .
2 Ibid. pp. 354f.
79
The o r i g i n a l t u r n i n g o f th e i n d i v i d u a l to w a rd th e
l i f e o f th e s p i r i t and t o t h e r e a d i n g o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a
t u r e o f t e n o c c u r s a lo n g w i t h some k i n d o f r e l i g i o u s commit
ment — a commitment to do o n ly th e w i l l o f God, o r to f o l
low o n e ’ s " i n n e r v o i c e , " o r sim ply to se e k more i n t e n s i v e l y .
W ith o u t i n v e s t i g a t i n g a t t h i s p o i n t th e p sy c h o lo g y o f th e
making o f a com m itm ent, i t c o u ld be s a i d t h a t th e commitment
i s th e m ajo r m o t i v a t i o n (on a c o n s c io u s l e v e l ) w hich h o ld s
t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o a more i n t e n s i v e r e a d i n g o f d e v o t i o n a l
l i t e r a t u r e and, more i m p o r t a n t , w hich c a u s e s th e l i t e r a t u r e
t o have a r e a l and l a s t i n g im p act upon h i s l i f e . In o t h e r
w o rd s, th e commitment makes th e s e e k e r ta k e s e r i o u s l y what
he r e a d s . ^
B ecause o f t h i s , and b e ca u se o f t h e v e ry n a t u r e o f
d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e , th e i n d i v i d u a l i s o f t e n made more
aw are o f h i s i n n e r c o n f l i c t s . (In' any view o f th e t o t a l ^
l i f e - c o u r s e o f an i n d i v i d u a l , c r i s e s and c o n f l i c t s a p p e a r
a s c r u c i a l . Thus i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e to d e a l w ith them more
s p e c i f i c a l l y a t t h i s p o i n t . ) T h is i n c r e a s e d a w a re n e ss can
come a b o u t i n a number of ways. F o r some i n d i v i d u a l s who
have a h ig h d e g re e o f s e l f - a w a r e n e s s , th e v e ry a tte m p t to
a c h ie v e a more s p i r i t u a l l i f e may l e a d to a k e e n e r se n se o f
3 See W illia m J a m e s ’ V a r i e t i e s o f R e lig io u s E x p e rie n c e f o r
some t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s s u b j e c t o f com m itm ent, e s p e c i a l l y
t h e s e c t i o n on a s c e t i c i s m in t h e c h a p t e r on S a i n t l i n e s s .
80
i n n e r c l e a v a g e s . As a d e v o te e , th e r e l i g i o u s s e e k e r may co n
c e n t r a t e on th e n a t u r e o f God a s A b s o lu te P e r f e c t i o n o r a s
A b s o lu te L ove, and he t r i e s to p e r f e c t in h im s e lf t h e v i r
t u e s o f p a t i e n c e , h u m i l i t y , n o n - a tta c h m e n t etc* B ut a lm o st
i n e v i t a b l y t h i s s t r i v i n g and t h i s w o rs h ip o f an a b s o l u t e
God make him more aware o f h i s own c o m p le te in a d e q u a c y to
r e a l i z e t h e s e h i g h g o a l s . He f i n d s i n h i m s e l f s e r i o u s b lo c k s
t o t h e i r a t t a i n m e n t . The v e ry i n t e n s i t y o f th e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
on t h e H ig h e s t makes him more c o n s c io u s o f h i s own "d a rk
s i d e " , and he comes to f e e l much more a c u t e l y how l i t t l e h i s
l i f e i s r e a l l y t o t a l l y com m itted to what h i s c o n s c io u s mind,
w i l l s . Sometimes t h i s a w a re n e s s o f i n n e r i n c o n s i s t e n c y and
c o n f l i c t becomes so g r e a t t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l c an no l o n g e r
f o l l o w th e t r a d i t i o n a l l i f e o f d e v o ti o n and must t u r n to
o t h e r a i d s , su c h a s p sy c h o lo g y o r p s y c h o a n a ly s is ." ^
O th e r k in d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s , l e s s open t o t h e i r i n n e r
s i t u a t i o n s , may n o t be aware o f t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f con
f l i c t w hich r e l i g i o u s s t r i v i n g may b r i n g . F o r t h e s e p e r s o n s ,
th e c o n f l i c t may p r e c i p i t a t e p e r s o n a l c r i s e s w hich seem to
be f o r c e d upon them from o u t s i d e . T hese c r i s e s may i n t u r n
com pel th e i n d i v i d u a l t o become aw are o f b o th th e f a c t and
th e n a t u r e o f th e i n n e r c l e a v a g e s . The need f o r s e x u a l o u t
l e t s v e r s u s th e d e s i r e f o r s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e , o r th e n e e d to
4 O th e r a i d s a r e l e s s i n t e n s i v e form s o f r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e ,
a b ro a d e n in g o f c u l t u r a l o r v o c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s , etc*
81
e x p r e s s h o s t i l i t y o r a f f e c t i o n v e r s u s th e d e s i r e to make a l l
t h i n g s r a t i o n a l o r i n t e l l e c t u a l , a r e exam ples o f th e k in d s
o f i n n e r c o n f l i c t w h ich c an be i n t e n s i f i e d by d e v o ti o n a l
s tu d y . F or i n s t a n c e , i n t h e c a s e o f M iss L * , th e r e p r e s s i o n
o f i n n e r f e e l i n g s u n d o u b te d ly had much to do w ith th e b r e a k
down o f r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith , h e r h u sb an d and w ith t h e i r ev en
t u a l d i v o r c e . H ere i t to o k a n e u r o t i c c r i s i s t o f o r c e aw are
n e s s . In c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n to t h i s , in t h e c a s e o f Mr# P # ,
a s e r i e s o f s m a l l e r c r i s e s , such a s g e t t i n g m a r r ie d , a d i s
s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h a " r a d i c a l " r e l i g i o u s l i f e , etc# g r a d u a l l y
i n c r e a s e d a w a re n e s s to th e p o i n t t h a t Mr. P . r e c o g n i z e d some
o f th e n e u r o t i c e le m e n ts i n h i s use o f th e I m i t a t i o n o f
C h r i s t # The d e g re e t o w hich a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n may be
f o r c e d to become aware o f g row ing i n n e r c o n f l i c t by o u t e r
c r i s e s v a r i e s g r e a t l y *
In s u b s t a n t i a t i o n o f th e above p o i n t o f v iew , a r a t h e r
l e n g t h y q u o t a t i o n i s in c l u d e d , w r i t t e n d i r e c t l y t o th e sub
j e c t by D orothy B. P h i l l i p s , e d i t o r o f The C hoice I s Always
O u r s , a r e c e n t a n th o lo g y o f d e v o t i o n a l m a t e r i a l from b o th
p s y c h o l o g i c a l and r e l i g i o u s s o u r c e s . I n s t e a d o f d e a l i n g
p r i m a r i l y w i t h th e d i f f e r e n c e s in th e i n d i v i d u a l s , she em
p h a s i z e s th e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f m e d i t a t i o n and t h e i r e f f e c t s
upon th e p r e c i p i t a t i n g o f c r i s e s .
I t h a s b e en th e o b s e r v a t i o n o f s e v e r a l p e o p le , m y se lf
i n c l u d e d , t h a t th e p r a c t i c e o f t h e k in d o f m e d i t a t i o n
w hich d o es n o t a llo w f o r th e f a c i n g o f t h e "Dark S i d e " —
82
t h a t i s , w hich f o c u s e s e x c l u s i v e l y on th e p o s i t i v e a s
p e c t s o f R e a l i t y — t e n d s to l e a d p e r s o n s i n t o p s y c h o
l o g i c a l c r i s e s more r a p i d l y th a n m ight o t h e r w i s e o c c u r .
P a r t i c u l a r l y does t h i s seem to happen when t h e r e i s
f o r c e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n on p r e s c r i b e d s u b j e c t - m a t t e r r e
q u i r i n g o n e ' t o ' r e p e a t e d l y d is m is s " s u b j e c t i v e f a n t a s i e s "
o r to r e p r e s s n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s (Exam ple: th e v e ry i n s e
c u r e p e r s o n e v id e n c in g b r a g g a r t b e h a v io r m e d i t a t i n g on
" H u m ility " ,: o r one w i t h deep r e s e n t m e n t s and u n r e s o l v e d
h a t r e d s m e d i t a t i n g on "Love" o r " P e a c e ." ) Any c le a v a g e
w h ich may e x i s t betw een c o n s c io u s and u n c o n s c io u s p u r
p o s e s i s t h u s l i k e l y to be i n t e n s i f i e d and th e c r i s i s
s i t u a t i o n a c c e l e r a t e d .
S in c e e v e ry c r i s i s p r e s e n t s o p p o r t u n i t y f o r i n n e r
c l a r i f i c a t i o n , such se e m in g ly n e g a t i v e r e s u l t s alw ays
h o l d th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p o s i t i v e g a i n . W hether such
g a i n s a r e r e a l i z e d seems to d epend on th e g e n e r a l p e r
s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e . The f a i r l y norm al p e r s o n u s u a l l y
g a i n s i n s i g h t i n t o th e I n c o n s i s t e n c i e s b etw een h i s i n n e r
and o u t e r l i v i n g and i s d r i v e n to se ek h e lp in r e c o n c i l
in g th e tw o. W ith t h e n e u r o t i c whose i n n e r r i g i d i t i e s
make l e a r n i n g from c r i s i s e x p e r i e n c e s d i f f i c u l t , t h e op
p o s i t e may o c c u r . He may r e a c t to " f a i l u r e " by i n t e n s i
f y i n g h i s m al- p r a c t i c e o f m e d i t a t i o n and th u s i n c r e a s i n g
h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s o r he may s e e k some new means by w hich
t o e sc a p e f a c i n g h i s i n n e r dilem ma.
■ B a la n c e d m e d i t a t i o n , on th e o t h e r h a n d , may a l s o h a s t
en p s y c h o l o g i c a l c r i s e s f o r some p e o p le b u t w i t h g r e a t e r
c e r t a i n t y o f y i e l d i n g f r u i t f u l r e s u l t s . By b a la n c e d med
i t a t i o n i s meant th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f b o t h th e n e g a t iv e ,
and p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f R e a l i t y a s th e y a r e r e v e a l e d from
w i t h i n th ro u g h p e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e and from w ith o u t , . .
w i t h i n th e l a r g e r c o n t e x t . T h is k in d o f p r o c e d u r e i s more
t r u s t w o r t h y f o r i t i s more l i k e l y t o b r i n g th e i n d i v i d u a l
i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e " p e r s o n a l u n c o n sc io u s " and to h e lp
him to fa c e and a s s i m i l a t e t h e c o n t e n t s t h e r e i n . B a l
an ce d m e d i t a t i o n may combine t h e u se o f r e l i g i o u s con
c e p t s and sym bols w hich h o ld v i t a l m eaning f o r th e i n
d i v i d u a l w i t h sym bols a r i s i n g from dream and " s u b j e c t i v e
f a n t a s y " e x p e r i e n c e s , t h u s p r o v i d i n g r i c h and dynamic
s u b j e c t - m a t t e r a ro u n d w hich to b in d th e a t t e n t i o n . . .
T here seems to be c o n s i d e r a b l e e v id e n c e , t h e n , t h a t
5 W r i t t e n f o r t h i s stu d y by M iss P h i l l i p s .
83
r e a d e r s o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e o f t e n f i n d th e m s e lv e s f o r
c e d to se ek a r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e i r c o n f l i c t s e a r l i e r th a n
o t h e r w i s e would have b e e n th e c a s e . I n some o f th e c a s e s
c i t e d i n th e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r , th e r e s o l u t i o n was so u g h t
i n F r e u d ia n o r J u n g ia n a n a l y s i s . Such a c o u r s e may n o t be
" s p i r i t u a l " i n a s t r i c t s e n s e , b u t i t may l e a d to p e r s o n a l
gro w th and th e a c c e p t a n c e o f a l l t h e a s p e c t s o f th e s e l f ,
w h ich may u l t i m a t e l y be i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f f u l l e r r e l a t i o n
s h ip w ith " s u p e r i n d i v i d u a l w h o le s ," o r w i t h God. Thus what
seems to have been p a t h o l o g i c a l o r s e l f - d e f e a t i n g in th e
s h o r t - t e r m view may u l t i m a t e l y have become h e a l i n g o r
g r o w t h f u l . (T h is b e n ig n outcome does n o t a lw a y s o c c u r , o f
c o u r s e . Mr. Y. i s an exam ple o f a c a s e w here th e c r i s e s ,
even th e one o f d i v o r c e , h a s n o t y e t made th e i n d i v i d u a l
aw are o f h i s own i n n e r p ro b le m . However, i t h a s o c c u r r e d in
a t l e a s t s i x c a s e s known to th e w r i t e r — t h r e e o f w hich a re
i n c l u d e d in C h a p te r IV .)
I t i s im p o s s i b l e to make any f i n a l s t a t e m e n t s w ith
r e g a r d to t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h i s c h a p t e r . I t can a t l e a s t be
s a i d , h o w e v e r ,t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r dynamic use o f d e v o t i o n a l
l i t e r a t u r e , w h e th e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e , must f i n a l l y be
p l a c e d i n th e c o n t e x t o f th e e n t i r e l i f e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ,
and t h a t a f i n a l e v a l u a t i o n o f i t s v a lu e o r l a c k o f v a lu e
c a n be made o n ly i n te rm s o f th e t o t a l l i f e - c o u r s e .
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
I GENERAL SUMMARY
The p u rp o s e o f t h i s stu d y h a s been to e x p lo r e t h e use
o f r e l i g i o u s d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e i n te rm s o f t h e i n s i g h t s
o f modern p s y c h o lo g y . F i r s t , th e p r a c t i c e s o f th e p a s t w ith
r e g a r d to t h e u se o f t h i s l i t e r a t u r e w ere i n v e s t i g a t e d in
o r d e r to d e te r m in e th e p e r t i n e n c e w h ich th e y had f o r t h i s
s t u d y ; in p a r t i c u l a r , some o f th e C a t h o l i c l i t e r a t u r e on
" s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n " was re v ie w e d . F o llo w in g t h i s , t h e c u r
r e n t p s y c h o l o g i c a l fram e s o f r e f e r e n c e w ere d i s c u s s e d and
t h e m ost s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y was b r i e f l y o u t
l i n e d , e m p h a sizin g t h o s e a s p e c t s w hich h a d t h e g r e a t e s t r e
l e v a n c e f o r o u r p u r p o s e s . In C h a p te r I I I , t h e s p e c i f i c dyna
m ics o f th e use and m isu se o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e was ex
p l o r e d , f i r s t in te rm s o f th e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l fram e o f r e
f e r e n c e , th e n i n te rm s o f th e " h o l i s t i c " and th e - p s y c h o a n a
l y t i c fram e s w here th o s e t h e o r i e s were p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t
o r h e l p f u l i n te rm s o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . Then a number
o f c a s e s were re v ie w e d w h ich i l l u s t r a t e d psychodynam ic f a c
t o r s o p e r a t i n g - i n d e v o t i o n a l r e a d i n g . I n g e n e r a l t h e s e c a s e s
d e a l t w i t h t h e p sy ch o d y n am ics o f m isu se r a t h e r th a n th e
c r e a t i v e use o f such r e a d i n g . F i n a l l y , an a t t e m p t was made
85
to s e t t h e s e s p e c i f i c dynam ics in th e l a r g e r fram ew ork o f
t h e t o t a l l i f e - h i s t o r y , u n d e r t h e a s s u m p tio n t h a t o n ly i n
t h i s Way c o u ld any t r u e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e m eaning o f devo
t i o n a l r e a d i n g be made.
II CONCLUSIONS
The im p o rta n c e o f nsvchodynam ic f a c t o r s . I t sh o u ld
be e v id e n t from, th e -p re c e d in g c h a p t e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f r o m ,th e
c a s e s , t h a t psychodynam ic f a c t o r s a r e o f c r u c i a l im p o rta n c e
i n d e te r m in in g j u s t what use an i n d i v i d u a l makes o f d e v o t i o n
a l r e a d i n g . The r e a d e r may f e e l t h a t t h e r e i s much more to
th e pro b lem t h a n t h e f a c t o r s w hich have b e en r e v ie w e d in
t h i s s t u d y , b u t a t l e a s t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f e x p l o r i n g and a t
te m p tin g to u n d e r s t a n d t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s w hich a r e
o p e r a t i n g h a s been d e m o n s tr a te d . T h is d e m o n s tr a ti o n o f th e
key s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s h a s been t h e main
s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e o f t h i s t h e s i s .
The n eed f o r g u i d a n c e . I t i s a t r u i s m o f c l i n i c a l
p sy c h o lo g y t h a t i t i s e x tre m e ly d i f f i c u l t f o r any i n d i v i d u a l
to know h i s own " b l i n d s p o t s , " o r s e l f - d e c e p t i o n s . T h is f a c t
h a s been c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z e d by th e C a t h o l i c C hurch f o r many
c e n t u r i e s , and i s th e r e a s o n f o r t h e i r e m p h asis upon h a v in g
s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n f o r th e h i g h e r l e v e l s o f p r a y e r and
r e l i g i o u s a s p i r a t i o n . I t i s a f a c t w hich P r o t e s t a n t i s m seems
86
to have l o s t s i g h t o f a t t im e s , to i t s own p e r i l . A ll o f
th e i n d i v i d u a l s in o u r i l l u s t r a t i v e c a s e s a r e P r o t e s t a n t s ,
and m ost o f them seem to d e m o n s tr a te th e n e ed f o r modern
" s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t o r s . " I n some ways th e c u r r e n t em p hasis
on t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r a i n i n g o f m i n i s t e r s in s e m in a r ie s i s
an a tt e m p t to m eet t h i s n e e d . However, e v e n ,h e r e , more sp e c
i f i c t r a i n i n g i n th e p r o p e r and im p ro p e r use o f r e l i g i o u s
l i t e r a t u r e ^should he h e l p f u l to most m i n i s t e r s . ^ A sid e from
s p e c i f i c re c o m m e n d a tio n s , i t w ould p r o b a b ly he J u s t i f i e d to
m a i n t a i n t h a t p s y c h o l o g i c a l a w a re n e s s i s n e ed ed by anyone
who u n d e r t a k e s to p u b l i s h , a d v e r t i s e o r recommend d e v o t i o n
a l l i t e r a t u r e . And i n s o f a r a s th e s t a t e m e n t in th e i n t r o
d u c to r y c h a p t e r a b o u t t h e i n c r e a s i n g u se o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r
a t u r e i s c o r r e c t , one c o u ld say t h a t t h i s a w a re n e ss i s e s
p e c i a l l y n e e d e d a t th e p r e s e n t tim e .
S u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . T h ere a r e o b v io u s
l y many a s p e c t s o f t h i s stu d y w hich n e ed f i l l i n g i n . The
p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a r e a lm o st u n l i m i t e d . One
o f t h e g r e a t e s t n e e d s i n t h i s f i e l d i s an a d e q u a te p sy c h o
l o g i c a l fram e o f r e f e r e n c e ; th e in a d e q u a c y o f th e p r e s e n t
At l e a s t two m i n i s t e r s who a.re w id e ly known a s modern
" s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t o r s " recommend s p i r i t u a l r e a d in g p rim
a r i l y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s " p e r s o n a l p r e
o c c u p a tio n " a t th e tim e , h o p in g t h a t i n t e r e s t in th e
s p i r i t u a l l i f e w i l l be s t i m u l a t e d on t h i s l e v e l f i r s t .
T h is i s sou nd pedagogy b u t i t c a n e a s i l y l e a d to a
87
fra m e s i s seen e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e a t t e m p t s to e x p l a i n th e
more c r e a t i v e and i n s p i r a t i o n a l u s e s o f r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e .
T h is p ro b lem i s n o t one o f a s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t , o f
c o u r s e , b u t i s d e p e n d e n t l a r g e l y upon d i s c o v e r i e s in t h e new
f i e l d s o f p sy c h o lo g y and p s y c h i a t r y *
I f i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e c a s e s t u d i e s have b e en th e
m ost r e v e a l i n g p a r t o f t h i s t h e s i s , th e n i t i s a l s o t r u e
t h a t more and f u l l e r c a s e s t u d i e s would shed much more l i g h t
on th e p ro b le m . In th e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e r e o ug h t to be a more
a d e q u a te sa m p lin g o f c a s e s — c a s e s w h ich w ould show a
g r e a t e r v a r i e t y o f dynam ics and in c l u d e a g r e a t e r v a r i e t y
o f d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e u s e d , and e s p e c i a l l y c a s e s w hich
show more f u l l y th e p o s i t i v e use o f such l i t e r a t u r e . T h is
l a t t e r k in d o f c a s e c o u ld p r o b a b ly be o b t a i n e d from p s y c h o
l o g i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d m i n i s t e r s . The m ost h e l p f u l c a s e s w ould
be th o s e w hich in c l u d e some p a s t o r a l c o u n s e l i n g and a l s o
some c o n t a c t w ith t h e m i n i s t e r f o l lo w in g c o u n s e l i n g when
t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s s e e k in g s p i r i t u a l l y th ro u g h p r a y e r , r e a d
i n g , e t c . I t i s o n ly th r o u g h f s .i r l y i n t e n s i v e c o u n s e l i n g o r
p s y c h o th e r a p y t h a t r e a l i n s i g h t i n t o p sy ch o d y n am ics can be
g a in e d . P s y c h o l o g i s t s and p s y c h i a t r i s t s c o u ld p r o b a b l y g iv e
n e g l e c t o f t h e more b a s i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s i f th e
e f f o r t t o " s t r i k e a s p a rk " i s th e o n ly c o n c e rn . See
R u s s e l l D ic k s , " D e v o tio n a l L i t e r a t u r e i n P a s t o r a l C a r e ,"
P a s t o r a l P s y c h o l o g y . V o l. 1 , No. 1 , F e b r u a r y , 1950.
88
f u l l e r d a t a on c a s e s w here th e use o f r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e
h a s been p a t h o l o g i c a l . H e re , h o w e v e r, th e i n v e s t i g a t o r
s h o u ld be c a r e f u l to ch o o se d o c t o r s who a r e n o t unsym pathe
t i c to r e l i g i o n , s i n c e d i s t o r t i o n i n th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
c a s e s i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f one* s p r e j u d i c e i s b o th easy and
common.
A n o th e r a r e a o f s t u d y . i s th e c o m p a riso n o f th e d i f
f e r e n t k in d s o f l i t e r a t u r e u se d and th e t e c h n i q u e s o f p r e
s e n t i n g i t w hich a re u t i l i z e d by m i n i s t e r s and o t h e r s who
a r e i n s p i r i t u a l c o u n s e l i n g s i t u a t i o n s . T h is a r e a h a s n o t
b e en i n v e s t i g a t e d a t a l l in th e p r e s e n t study*
I n g e n e r a l , h ow ev er, th e more i n t e n s i v e stu d y o f more
c a s e h i s t o r i e s w here r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e h a s b een an im por
t a n t f a c t o r w i l l p r o b a b ly t u r n o u t to be t h e g r e a t e s t so u rc e
o f new know ledge; t h e c a r e f u l stu d y o f p e r s o n a l i t i e s sh o u ld
re m a in c e n t r a l f o r t h i s k in d o f s e a r c h f o r t r u t h .
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Creator Havens, Joseph (author)

Core Title Psychodynamic factors in the use of religious devotional literature

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Master of Arts

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Rights Havens, Joseph

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