University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A study of the historical growth of the social emphasis in Christianity

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A study of the historical growth of the social emphasis in Christianity

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Content A STUDY OF THE HISTORICAL GROW TH OF THE
SOCIAL EMPHASIS IN GHRISTimiTY
A T h e sis
P re s e n te d to
th e F a c u lty of th e School o f R e lig io n
U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t
o f th e R equirem ents f o r th e Degree
M aster o f Theology
by
J e s s e M arvin Davis
A p ril 1940
UMI Number: EP65104
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This thesis, written by
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under the direction of A J -S . Faculty Committee,
and ap p ro ved by all its members, has been
presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the
School of Religion in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF THEOLOGY
(jaJSZ^D em
D cii6 «. . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Faculty Com m ittee
Chair ma,
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER page
I . THE SOCIAL BACKGROUND A N D SOCIAL TEACHINGS
OF JE S U S ..................................... : . . . . 1
S tatem ent of th e p r o b l e m ........................................... 1
F a c to rs in th e background of J e s u s ’
s o c i a l i n t e r e s t ......................................................... 1
Je su s as a s o c ia li z e d i n d i v i d u a l ........................ 3
I I . SOCIAL IDEALS A N D PRACTICES IN THE GRAECO
ROM AN W ORLD AS THE MILIEU OF EARLY
CHRISTIANITY ................................. 14
I I I . THE SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY . . . 19
The e s s e n t i a l concepts o f th e E a rly Church . 19
17. LATER DEVELOPMENTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH . . . . S7
The Church becomes ab so rb ed in w o rld ly
a f f a i r s . . . .................................. .... .. 33
7. THE INFLUENCE OF MONASTICISM . . . . . . . . . 37
H i s t o r i c a l background of m onasticism i . . . 37
The decay o f m o n astic ism ........................ 43
71. THE COMING OF THE FR IA R S................................................ 45
The s o c i a l c o n d itio n s . ................... . . . . . 45
711. THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH A N D SOCIAL CHRISTIANITY . 53
V III. THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION . . . . . 59
The s o c i a l a s p e c ts of th e R en aissan ce
and R e f o r m a t i o n ............................................... 59
ill
GEâPTSR PAGI
IX. THE SOCIAL EMPHASIS DOMIHAHT IH M ODERN
CHRISTIANITY ................................................................... 71
Xi SÜM M ARY.OP F IN D IN G S ......................................................... 80
BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................... 85
THE SOCIAL BACKGROUND AND SOCIAL TEACHINGS OF JESUS
S tatem ent o f th e p ro b lem . I t i s th e purpose o f t h i s
stu d y (1) to s e t f o r t h th e s o c i a l te a c h in g s and p r i n c i p l e s
im p l i c i t in th e G ospel; (S) to shots how th e s e p r i n c i p l e s and
te a c h in g s have f a r e d th ro u g h th e c e n t u r i e s — s in c e th e tim e
th e y were f i r s t u t t e r e d ; and (3) to in d ic a t e how th e Church
came a t l a s t to th e dominant s o c i a l em phasis o f th e p re s e n t
day.
I n t h i s c h a p te r an account w i l l be g iv e n of th e f a c
to r s in th e background o f J e s u s ’ s o c i a l i n t e r e s t , a d i s
c u s sio n o f Je su s as a s o c i a l i z e d i n d iv i d u a l, and, f i n a l l y ,
h i s fundam ental s o c i a l te a c h in g s .
F a c to rs in th e background o f J e s u s ’ s o c i a l i n t e r e s t .
A lthough i t i s w id e ly a d m itte d th a t J e s u s o f N azareth i s th e
fo rem o st among th o se who have in flu e n c e d s o c i a l p ro g re s s ,
th e r e i s no such common agreem ent as to what e x te n t h is
te a c h in g was concerned w ith s o c ia l m a tte r s . On th e one hand
Je su s has been p ro cla im ed th e C h ief o f S o c i a l i s t s , on th e
o th e r , i t has been f r e e l y a s s e r te d t h a t s o c i a l q u e s tio n s
w ere o u ts id e h i s p e c u lia r p ro v in c e . The t r u t h w i l l not be
found in e i t h e r o f th e s e e x tre m e s. He cannot be c a lle d a
S o c i a l i s t because S o c ia lism in i t s te c h n ic a l s e n se , i n
c lu d in g i t s th e o ry o f economic r e c o n s tr u c tio n , had n o t y e t
z
been b o rn . F u rth e rm o re , he o rg a n iz e d no s o c i a l system . The
main concern o f H is l i f e was on o th e r th a n what we commonly
term " s o c i a l c o n s id e r a tio n s ," and he t r u s t e d c h i e f ly in in
t e r n a l r a t h e r than e x t e r n a l tr a n s f o r m a tio n . As Kent sa y s,
"S o c ia lism p la c e s i t s c h ie f em phasis on m a te r ia l v a lu e s ;
C h r i s t i a n i t y on th o se which a re e t h i c a l and s p i r i t u a l . " ^
Yet i t would be j u s t as f a l s e to ta k e th e o p p o s ite view and
say th a t th e m essage of Jesu s i s i n d i f f e r e n t to th e w o rld ’s
s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . For no o th e r te a c h e r has brought to
bear on th o se r e l a t i o n s h i p s an in flu e n c e a t once so deep and
so f a r - r e a c h in g . F o r w h ile he did d e a l p r im a r ily w ith in
d iv id u a ls , f o r him, one in d is p e n s a b le elem ent in any r e l i g i o u s
ex p e rie n c e was a s o c i a l e x p re s s io n in s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
S e v e ra l v ery im p o rta n t f a c t o r s combined in J e s u s ’
l i f e o f f e r a p a r t i a l e x p la n a tio n , not o n ly of h is in f lu e n c e ,
but a ls o o f h i s concern f o r s o c ia l i d e a l s and p r a c t i c e s . In
th e main th e s e f a c t o r s have to do w ith h is R e lig i o - s o c ia l
h e r i t a g e .
Of g r e a t s ig n if ic a n c e was th e f a c t t h a t he sprang
from a ra c e o f s o c i a l p ro p h e ts and te a c h e r s . Such men o f
s o c ia l v is io n as Amos, Hosea, Micah, I s a ia h and Jerem iah, to
m ention o n ly a few, were in th e d i r e c t l i n e o f H is s p i r i t u a l
^ C h a rles F o s te r K ent, The S o c ia l T eachings o f th e
P ro p h e ts and Je su s (New York: C h a rle s S c r ib n e r ’s Sons, 1923),
p . 333.
3
f o r b e a r s . Not o n ly so , but in h is own day a new s o c i a l
awakening was b ein g in a u g u ra te d by th e Rabbi H i l l e l . H i11e l ,
u n lik e h i s c o n te m p o ra rie s, p la c e d h is c h ie f em phasis, n o t
upon th e ce re m o n ia l, but r a t h e r upon c h a r a c te r and l i f e .
M oreover, John th e B a p tis t , h is imm ediate p re d e c e s s o r, was
p ro fo u n d ly a s o c i a l te a c h e r , K ent^ says th a t w h ile H i l l e l
re p r e s e n te d th e n o b le s t te a c h in g s o f l a t e r Judaism , John was
th e f i r s t - f r u i t s o f a new and suprem ely v i t a l w orld movement.
The fundam ental message of both was e t h i c a l and s o c ia l; and
i t was th e s tu r d y s o c ia l message o f John th e B a p tis t th a t
drew th e M aster B u ild e r of N a z a re th .
N e v e rth e le s s , though th e fo re g o in g f a c t o r s a re o f
g r e a t im portance, f o r th e supreme ev id en ce of J e s u s ’ i n t e r e s t
in s o c i a l q u e s tio n s , we must look to th e c h a ra c te r of h i s
te a c h in g s . N ea rly h a l f of th e s e , a s K ent^ i n d ic a t e s a re
d i s t i n c t l y s o c i a l in t h e i r m essage.
Je su s as a s o c ia li z e d i n d i v i d u a l . The f a c t t h a t
Je su s was t r u l y s o c i a l in o u tlo o k i s in d ic a te d by th e th in g s
he d id . At th e v ery o u ts e t of h is p u b lic m in is tr y , he con
s e c r a te d h im se lf to a l i f e o f p u b lic s e r v ic e . He c lo se d th e
door o f th e c a rp e n te r shop, s a id goodbye to th e fa m ily and
^ I b i a . . p. 169.
® I b i d . . p . 178.
4
home town, and went to jo in John th e B a p tis t a t th e R iv er
Jo rd a n . There h i s c o n s e c ra tio n was made w h ile he was being
b a p tiz e d by John, At t h i s tim e he h ea rd a h e a v en ly v o ic e
sa y in g , "Thou a r e my beloved Son, in whom I am w e ll p le a s e d " ;^
from t h i s tim e on he gave h is l i f e l i t e r a l l y to s o c i e t y . He
became a te a c h e r o f r e l i g i o n and m in is te re d a ls o to th e
p h y s ic a l needs o f men whenever he c o u ld . - The s i g n i f i c a n t
p r i n c i p l e o f s o c i a l s e r v ic e i s th u s i l l u s t r a t e d in t h i s in
i t i a l a c t o f c o n s e c r a tio n .
Im m ediately fo llo w in g t h i s p u b lic c o n s e c ra tio n o f h is
l i f e to th e s e r v ic e of h is fellow m en, he w ithdrew to th e
w ild e rn e s s where he w re s tle d f o r many days w ith th e problem
o f how he should c a r r y o u t th e g r e a t work to which he had
d e d ic a te d h im s e lf. H is e x p e rie n c e to o k th e form of th r e e
te m p ta tio n s . D uring th e s e te m p ta tio n s^ th e re were two p a r
amount c o n s id e r a tio n s in h is mind. The f i r s t in v o lv e d h is
d e s ir e to do th e w i l l o f God— to choose H is way;^ th e second
had to do w ith th e mass o f hum anity w ith whom and f o r whom
he was to la b o r . He m ust h e re re a c h a d e c is io n as to how he
would c a rr y out God’s w i l l in r e l a t i o n to them. Would he
u se h i s power to s a t i s f y t h e i r p h y s ic a l needs? T his was th e
q u e s tio n in v o lv e d in th e f i r s t te m p ta tio n . F olk were hungry.
4 Mark, 1 :1 1 .
^ M atthew, 4 :1 -1 1 .
5
What would he do? H is answer i s th a t m a te r ia l needs s h a l l
n o t have f i r s t p la c e in h is w ork, There i s a p la c e in l i f e
f o r m a te r ia l th in g s but th e y a re not to be suprem ely im por
t a n t in h i s program . "Man s h a l l n o t l i v e by b read a lo n e .
The second te m p ta tio n to win th e crowd by r e s o r t i n g
to s ig n s and w onders, he u t t e r l y r e j e c t e d . P h y s ic a l demon
s t r a t i o n s do n o t win a d h e re n ts to t r u t h . The t h i r d was th e
te m p ta tio n to com promise. And even h e re th e te m p ta tio n , as
i t came to him, h a d w ith in i t th e q u e s tio n as to what would
be th e g r e a t e s t good f o r th e g r e a t e s t number. Why not y ie ld
a l i t t l e in your p r i n c i p l e s f o r th e sake o f a l a r g e r i n f l u
ence? T his was th e s u b tle s u g g e s tio n t h a t came to him. But
J e s u s , as alw ays, saw th a t no l a s t i n g good could come from a
compromise w ith e v i l . I t i s c l e a r l y e v id e n t h e re t h a t Je su s
was se ek in g to ap p ly th e im p o rtan t s o c i a l c r i t e r i o n by which
one may judge ev e ry a c t or i d e a l , nam ely, what w i l l be i t s
e f f e c t upon human p e r s o n a lity ?
A s h o r t tim e l a t e r in th e co u rse o f h is work a s
p re a c h e r and te a c h e r , he came one day to th e synagogue a t
N az areth where he had been b ro u g h t u p . By t h i s tim e he had
a r a t h e r w e ll- d e fin e d statement*^ o f what h i s program was to
b e. The sta te m e n t is ta k en over from th e book o f I s a i a h , ^
Ô I b i d . . 4 :4 .
Luke, 4 :1 8 -1 9 .
® I s a i a h , 6 1 :1 -8 .
and i s s a tu r a te d w ith s o c i a l id e a lis m .
The s p i r i t of th e Lord i s upon me, because he h a th
a n n o in te d me to p reach th e g o sp e l to th e poor; he h a th
se n t me to h e a l th e b ro k e n h e a rte d , to p reac h d e l i v e r
ance to th e c a p tiv e s , and re c o v e ry o f s ig h t to th e
b lin d , to s e t a t l i b e r t y them t h a t a re b ru is e d , to
p re a c h th e a c c e p ta b le y ea r of th e L ord.^
To " s p i r i t u a l i z e " t h i s sta te m e n t u n t i l i t i s s o c i a l l y mean
i n g l e s s , is to m is in te r p r e t th e r e l i g i o n of J e s u s . To say
th a t he d id not mean d e liv e r a n c e of a c tu a l c a p tiv e s , but
o n ly o f c a p tiv e s to " s i n " ; and th a t by "them th a t a re
b ru is e d " he d id not mean th e dow ntrodden, but on ly th o se who
had been b r u is e d by some se v e re s p i r i t u a l t r i a l , i s to m is
c o n s tru e the meaning o f th e p a s sa g e . He was to p reac h to
th e p o o r. The poor were th e ones who were b ro k e n h e a rte d ;
th e poor were th e ones who were c a p tiv e s ; th e poor were th e
downtrodden oneSé, Je su s b e lie v e d t h a t th e m oral and s p i r i t
u a l le a v e n o f h is m essage would a c t u a l l y mean freedom f o r
th e o p p resse d c la s s e s and g ro u p s. Again, J e s u s ’ s o c i a l
n a tu re is c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d in h is work o f h e a lin g .
S c i e n t i f i c advance may have shed some l i g h t upon th e s e h e a l
in g s , b u t th e re can be no doubt th a t Je su s h e a le d th e s ic k .
H is e v id e n t d e s ir e to h e lp s u f f e r i n g men and women and h is
example in so doing has been one o f th e g r e a t in c e n tiv e s in
^ Luke, 4 :1 8 -1 9 .
Mark, 1 :3 2 -3 4 .
7
a l l th e ages s in c e he liv e d to c a r r y on t h a t g re a t s o c i a l
work.
Yet a g a in , he m ingled f r e e l y w ith o th e r s . He a s s o
c i a te d in tim a te ly w ith a l l c la s s e s o f p e o p le . He d in ed w ith
s o c i a l o n tc a s ts ^ ^ such as p u b lic a n s and s in n e r s . The s to r y
o f Zaocheus^^ i s a p e r f e c t example o f what Je su s ex p ected
h i s r e l i g i o n to acco m p lish , Zaccheus had a r e l i g i o u s ex p e r
ie n c e , an i n t e g r a l p a r t of which was a d e c is io n to r e s t o r e
r i g h t r e l a t i o n s w ith h is fe llo w s , so f a r as th a t was p o s s ib le
f o r him, by r e s t o r i n g f o u r - f o ld any money he had g o tte n d i s
h o n o ra b ly . Here b o th th e i n d iv i d u a l and s o c i a l n a tu re o f
J e s u s ’ message a re c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d .
In th e in c id e n t where Je su s drove th e money changers
o u t of th e tem ple^^ h i s b u rn in g s o c i a l p a s s io n reach ed i t s
h e i g h t. In t h i s c o n f l i c t w ith th e d e a le r s in th e tem ple he
s e a ls h is f a t e . T h e ir h y p o c ris y , t h e i r r u t h l e s s ro b b in g o f
th e p o o r, t h e i r u t t e r la c k of re v e re n c e f o r th e house o f
p ra y e r , a l l th e s e he saw and w ith f la s h in g eyes and v ig o ro u s
a c tio n , he drove them from th e tem p le. Such abuse of so
im p o rtan t a so u rce o f s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s id e a lis m was to
him i n t o l e r a b l e . Ho one h as e v e r opposed en tre n c h e d wrong
I b i d . , 2 :1 5 .
Luke, 1 9 :1 -1 0 .
mark, 1 1 :1 5 -1 7 .
8
W ithout danger to h im s e lf and h i s f r i e n d s . Je s u s was no
e x c e p tio n .
The r e l i g i o n of J e s u s , as i t i s found in th e G ospels,
h as alw ays a s o c i a l as w e ll as an in d iv id u a l a s p e c t.
Thou Shalt lo v e th e Lord th y God will all th y heart,
and with all th y s o u l, and with all th y mind . . .
Thou Shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.i^
Most of th e sa y in g s p re s e rv e d to p o s t e r i t y have t h i s
tw o fo ld r e f e r e n c e . The hope o f th e Kingdom in v o lv e s a new
s o c i a l i d e a l . On p u r e ly s e l f - r e g a r d i n g v i r t u e s Je su s has
l i t t l e to sa y . He th in k s o f men alw ays in r e l a t i o n to t h e i r
fe llo w men. The q u a l i t i e s on which he la y s s t r e s s — lo v e ,
m ercy, j u s t i c e , f o rg iv e n e s s a r e o b v io u sly s o c i a l in n a tu r e .
A p e rso n cannot lo v e w ith o u t lo v in g someone, he cannot show
mercy u n le s s a n o th e r in d iv id u a l i s in v o lv e d , he cannot be
j u s t ex cep t in human r e l a t i o n s h i p s , nor can he fo rg iv e un
l e s s a n o th e r has done som ething f o r which he needs f o r g iv e
n e s s .
To be s u r e , Je su s has n o th in g to say d i r e c t l y about
s o c i a l economic o r p o l i t i c a l re fo rm s . But he has much to
sa y in which he s e t s f o r t h p r i n c i p l e s which a p p ly to a l l o f
th e s e refo rm a tte m p ts . Je su s was n o t concerned about furr-
n is h in g h is p eo p le w ith an economic o r s o c i a l sc h e m e --th a t
would have been f a t a l . What he did was to r e v e a l
I b i d . . 1 2 :3 0 -3 1 .
com prehensive p r i n c i p l e s t h a t co u ld be worked in to a s o c i a l
p a t t e r n in any ag e . As Mathews sa y s, " I f we a re r e a l l y to
u n d e rsta n d J e s u s we must not r e g a r d him as p r im a r il y i n t e r
e s te d in s e t t i n g f o r t h a s y s t e m . H i s aim was p r a c t i c a l —
th e p r e p a r a tio n o f men f o r th e kingdom, th e coming o f which
th e y a lre a d y a n t i c i p a t e d .
He does not aim to lo o k a t men in th e mass but a t men
a s p e rs o n a l b e in g s — a s in d iv i d u a ls . Je su s i s unique in t h i s .
I t had alw ays been th e n a tio n o r c i t y o r s o c i a l c l a s s which
was ta k e n as th e u n i t . The in d iv id u a l had v alu e o n ly as a
member o f th e g ro u p . Je s u s d isc o v e re d th e w orth o f men as
p e r s o n a l i t i e s . In d eed one o f th e most im p o rta n t f a c t o r s
im p l i c i t in th e G ospel in i t s b e a rin g upon s o c ia l C h r is t ia n
i t y i s t h i s very one th a t e v e ry human l i f e i s of i n f i n i t e
w orth in th e s ig h t o f God.
When Je su s to ld h is h e a re rs th a t God c o u ld be i n t e r
e s te d in term s o f fa th e rh o o d a t i t s b e s t, o r when he p ic tu r e d
God a s se n d in g r a i n upon th e j u s t and u n j u s t , i t aro u sed
no o p p o s itio n . They w ere n o t d is tu rb e d by h is te a c h in g about
God. But when he began t o te a c h th e e q u a lit y o f a l l men be
f o re God, th e P h a r is e e s became in c e n se d a g a in s t him. Gould
S h a ile r Mathews, Je su s on S o c ia l I n s t i t u t i o n s
York: The M acm illan Company, 19E8T7 P* 44.
M atthew, 5 :4 5 .
10
God be as muoh concerned about p u b lic a n s and s in n e r s a s he
was about P h a r is e e s ? Was t h i s " F rie n d o f p u b lic a n s and
sinners"^*^ t r y in g to i n f e r a s much by f o o l i s h s t o r i e s about
l o s t c o i n s , w a n d e r i n g s h e e p , p r o d i g a l sons?^^ Such a
d em o cratic id e a l was in d eed h a rsh to t h e i r h y p o c r i t i c a l e a r s .
But Je su s would not s to p . You must lo v e your n e ig h b o r as
y o u r s e lf , he s a id . And w h ile th e m a tc h le ss s to r y o f th e good
S am aritan was r in g in g in h is e a r s , Je su s tu rn e d to th e
law yer and s a id , "Go th o u and do lik e w is e ," "Your lo v e ,"
J e su s would say, "must f in d f u l f i l l m e n t in m in is te r in g to
human need w herever you f in d i t ."
The im p lic a tio n s of h i s courageous a t t i t u d e tow ard
man were indeed f a r re a c h in g . Even th e S abbath, th e most
s a c re d o f i n s t i t u t i o n s , was made f o r man and not man f o r th e
QO
S ab b ath , No S abbath law would e v e r keep him from s e rv in g
man. F u rth erm o re, a t th e f i n a l judgment s e a t , n o t c r e e d a l
r e c i t a t i o n s , but human s e r v ic e to th e hungry, t h i r s t y , naked,
s ic k , and im prisoned would c o n s t i t u t e th e one p a s s p o rt to th e
I b i d . . 1 1 :1 9 .
Luke, 1 5 :8 -1 0 .
I b i d .. 1 5 :4 -7 ,
I b i d .. 1 5 :1 1 -1 2 .
Luke, 1 0 :3 0 -3 5 .
22
Mark, 2 :2 7 .
11
23
fa v o r o f th e E te r n a l .
Jesus* fundam ental a t t i t u d e o f s e e in g men in term s o f
t h e i r p o s s i b i l i t i e s , t h e i r d iv in e o r i g i n , t h e i r p o t e n t i a l
w o rth , i s th e e s s e n t i a l ro o ta g e of modern s o c i a l C h r is t ia n i ty ,
When Je su s a s s e r te d t h a t God i s "Our F a t h e r " a n d
s t a r t e d w orking upon t h a t b a s ic p r i n c i p l e , he began to shed
l i g h t in to ev e ry realm o f l i f e . Men a re to be peacem akers,^^
t h a t th e y may be tr u e sons of God. Men a re to be m e r c ifu l,
t h a t th e y may have in th em selv es t h i s G odlike q u a l i t y . Men
27
a re to endure p e r s e c u tio n w i l l i n g l y f o r r ig h te o u s n e s s sake
t h a t t h e i r fe llo w s h ip w ith God may rem ain unbroken. Men are
to re v e re n c e th e m a rria g e bond and th e fa m ily because th e y
a r e o rd a in e d o f God#^® Men a r e to lo v e t h e i r enem ies^^ be
cause th a t i s G o d l i k e . M e n a re to beware o f " g r e a t p o s-
31
s e s s io n s " because th e y crowd out God and makes f o lk b lin d
23 M atthew, 2 5 :3 1 -4 6 .
I b i d . . 6 :9 -1 3 .
^ I b i d . . 5:9,
I b i d . . 5:7.
27
I b i d . . 5 :1 1 .
I b i d . , 1 9 :6 .
I b i d . . 5 :4 4 .
I b i d . . 5 :4 5 .
31
Mark, 1 0 :2 2 .
12
to th e needs o f t h e i r f e l l o w m e n , M e n a re to see to i t t h a t
everyone has th e o p p o r tu n ity to work f o r a l i v i n g w age,^^
because i t i s l i k e a p a th e r to p ro v id e f o r th e needs o f h i s
c h ild r e n when th e y work a c c o rd in g to t h e i r a b i l i t y and oppor
t u n i t y , Men a re to p r a c t i c e such s o c i a l v i r t u e s as s i n
c e r i t y , ^ ^ c h a r i t a b l e j u d g m e n t , a n d f o r g iv e n e s s ,^ ^ because
th e y a r e e s s e n t i a l i f men a re to become sons o f God,
These te a c h in g s and many o th e rs a re ev idence enough
t h a t C h r i s t ’s te a c h in g s have w ith in them th e i d e a l s and im
p e tu s th a t w a rra n t a s o c i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as w e ll a s a
p r a c t i c e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y in term s o f s o c i a l r e c o n s tr u c tio n .
These embody th e m o ral, e t h i c a l , and r e l i g i o u s q u a l i t i e s o f
th e Kingdom o f God i d e a l .
Je su s d id n o t work them in to a system , nor d id he
p r e s e n t them fo rm a lly . They grew o u t o f h is l i f e and w ork.
F o r c e n tu r ie s th e y have been submerged u n d er o th e r c o n s id e r
a t io n s , but in t h e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry th e y a re coming back to
l i f e and e n te r in g in to th e l i f e o f s o c i e t y .
But th e s t o r y o f how th e s e te a c h in g s have f a r e d
Luke, 1 6 :1 9 -3 1 .
33
M atthew, 2 0 :1 -1 5 é
^ I b i d .. 5 :3 7 ,
35
Ib id .. 7 :1 -5 .
Ibid.. 1 8 :2 1 -2 2 .
13
th ro u g h th e c e n tu r ie s i s th e purp o se o f t h i s p a p e r. F i r s t
as th e y went out in to th e Graeco-Roman w orld; th e n as th e y
moved on in to Europe, and from th e n ce i n to Am erica. The
n e x t two c h a p te rs deaL r e s p e c tiv e ly w ith pagan i d e a l s in th e
GraecOf^Homan w orld and th e s o c i a l a s p e c ts o f E a rly o r
P r im itiv e C h r i s t i a n i t y .
CHAPTER I I
SOCIAL IDEALS AND PRACTICES IK THE GRAEGG-ROMAK W ORLD
AS THE MILIEU OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY
As we examine th e s o c i a l i d e a l s and p r a c t i c e s o f th e
Graeco-Roman w orld d u rin g th e in fa n c y o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , we
d is c o v e r th a t th e r e was much in them t h a t was h ig h and noble,
B ut, a t th e same tim e, i t i s e v id e n t t h a t th e y were not
h ig h ly conducive to s o c i a l b e tte r m e n t, T his was due, n o t
o n ly to t h e i r e x c e ss iv e in d iv id u a lis m , b u t a ls o to c e r t a i n
id e a s in h e re n t in t h e i r c o n c e p tio n of D e ity .
A ccording to th e te a c h in g of th e Greeks and Romans as
w e ll as o f th e Jews, God was th o u g h t o f as h av in g th e s o le
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r human w e lf a r e . As y e t th e r e was l i t t l e
th o u g h t t h a t man h im s e lf m ight have a p a r t in b rin g in g about
th e s o c i a l redem ption o f s o c i e t y . N e ith e r Jew n o r G e n tile
had y e t p la p e d much v a lu e upon human e f f o r t a s a f a c t o r in
b rin g in g about s o c i a l l y id e a l c o n d itio n s .
The Jew from th e v e ry b eg in n in g h e ld s tr o n g ly to th e
T h e o c ra tic s o c i a l i d e a l . Because of t h e i r dependence upon
God to r u le th e w orld h im s e lf w ith o u t t h e i r c o o p e ra tio n , i t
seems t h a t th e c o n s c io u sn e ss of r e p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s o c i a l
b e tte rm e n t was p r a c t i c a l l y la c k in g . This can be seen i n th e
f a c t t h a t th e r e was alm ost no em phasis on s o c ia l w e lfa re a t
t h i s tim e . Then, to o , some o f th e M essian ic c o n c e p tio n s o f
15
I s r a e l were to th e e f f e c t th a t God w ould b rin g ab o u t th e
i d e a l c o n d itio n . Men d id n o t f e e l th e need to work f o r th e
new day. I n s p i t e o f th e h a rd s h ip s s u f f e r e d th ro u g h o u t t h e i r
h i s t o r y , t h e i r co n fid e n c e in God as p r e s e r v e r and s a v io u r o f
h is p eo p le went u n d is tu rb e d . They b e lie v e d t h a t in h i s own
good tim e God would u s h e r in th e h o p e d -fo r day. Even th e
F ath erh o o d o f God t h a t Je s u s ta u g h t h is d i s c i p l e s would te n d
to le a d men to depend on God and n o t even t r y th em selv es to
improve t h e i r l o t . I f God c lo th e s th e g ra s s o f th e f i e l d , ^
fe e d s th e b ir d s o f th e a i r , ^ and knows what th in g s we have
need o f , why w orry about i t ? Why not l e t God do i t a l l ?
N a tu r a lly , t h i s of i t s e l f had a d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t on any
grow th o f s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I f th in g s seemed bad, th e
new o rd e r o f h ig h e r th in g s co u ld n o t be a t t a i n e d u n t i l some
f u tu r e moment when God would e s t a b l i s h im m ed iately o r by a id
o f h is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , or M essiah, a new o rd e r o f e x is te n c e .
In t h i s way God was to f u l f i l l h i s p led g e made to Abraham and
h i s d e s c e n d a n ts.
The su rro u n d in g n a t io n s o f th e Graeco-Roman w orld,
commonly c a lle d G e n tile s , a ls o m a in ta in e d t h i s n o tio n o f a
d iv in e ly e s ta b li s h e d s o c ie ty . The gods w ere th e a u th o rs and
s u s t a in e r s of c i v i l i z a t i o n . C onsequently a l l ty p e s o f
^ M atthew, 6 :3 0 .
^ I b i d . . 6 :2 6 .
16
m is fo rtu n e were th o u g h t to be cau sed by u n f r ie n d ly su p e r
n a t u r a l f o r c e s ; w h ile abundant c ro p s , s u c c e s s f u l b u s in e s s ,
good h e a l t h , and a l l th a t went to make s o c i e t y happy were
m a n if e s ta tio n s o f h e a v e n ’ s f a v o r .
The id e a , how ever, t h a t c o n d itio n s in th e w o rld were
dependent upon th e whims of d e i ty was n o t a u n iv e r s a l one
even among th e G e n tile s . The d i s c i p l e s o f E p icu ru s u rged
men to throw o f f t h i s id e a t h a t s u p e r n a tu r a l b ein g s i n t e r
f e r e d in w ordly a f f a i r s . E p ic u r u s ’ fo llo w e rs were aware o f
th e d e f e c ts in th e s o c i a l o r d e r , and had a keen d e s i r e to
d e l i v e r th e p eo p le from t h e i r t r o u b le s , b u t th e y o f f e r e d no
c o n s tr u c tiv e program to m eet th e needs o f th e m asses. The
th o u g h t o f a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g in s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s fo r
th e g r e a t e s t good o f th e group, i f a t a l l p r e s e n t in t h e i r
system o f th o u g h t, was v e ry l i t t l e developed a t th e coming
o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .
Among th e p e o p le s o f th e Roman Em pire, how ever, th e re
was a n o th e r movement t h a t d id a g r e a t d e a l in th e i n t e r e s t
o f human w e lfa re . T his group was th e S to ic s . By th e b e g in
n in g of th e C h r is t ia n e r a i t had become d e e p ly i n t e r e s t e d in
th e problem s o f s o c ie ty , and a lth o u g h a l l c l a s s e s o f p eo p le
were to be found among i t s a d h e re n ts , i t ap p e ale d p r im a r ily
to th e more i n t e l l e c t u a l c l a s s e s . They, to o , fo u g h t a g a in s t
th e f o o l i s h n o tio n t h a t th e a c c id e n ts and b le s s in g s of l i f e
were c o n d itio n e d by f r e a k i s h Gods. T h e ir d e i ty was th e
17
d iv in e Reason o r P ro v id e n ce p e rv a d in g a l l th e w orld, whose
w i l l was o n ly good. The so u rce o f e v i l , s a id th e S to ic s ,
was man’s f a i l u r e to l i v e in acco rd an ce w ith th e p o s s i b i l
i t i e s o f h is b e s t s e l f .
The S to ic s were s e n s i t i v e to th e v ic io u s f e a t u r e s in
th e l i f e o f t h e i r day and gave th em selv es e a r n e s tly to th e
e r a d i c a t io n of e x i s t i n g e v i l s . E s p e c ia lly i s t h e i r work
n o tic e a b le in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e i n s t i t u t i o n o f s la v e r y .
The s la v e r y o f th e l a t e r r e p u b lic and e a r l y em pire had
been i n t o l e r a b l y h a rs h and c r u e l , but f o r two cen
t u r i e s and m ore, th e s t o i c j u r i s t s had been a t work
upon i t and th e w o rst f e a t u r e s had been su p p re s s e d .^
Thompson^ in sp e ak in g o f t h i s p e rio d s c o re s many h i s t o r i a n s
because th e y ig n o re th e g r e a t in f lu e n c e o f much o f pagan
th o u g h t, "Judged by any s ta n d a rd ," he s a y s , " S to ic ism was
h ig h , n o b le , c i v i l i z e d , e n lig h te n e d , and some o f i t s te a c h
in g s a re s t i l l v iv id in th e fo rw ard g ro p in g o f th e race.% ^
W ith such a system which t r i e d to p la c e th e r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y f o r th e conduct o f human a f f a i r s more d i r e c t l y upon
th e sh o u ld e rs o f men, r a t h e r th a n le a v e i t a l l to th e
posed whims o f d e i t y , one m ight ex p ect a v ery p r a c t i c a l
L. T. Hobhouse, " C h r i s t i a n i t y , " E n cy clo p ed ia o f th e
S o c ia l S c ie n c e s . 3 :4 5 4 , 1930.
4
James W e s tf a ll Thompson, t o Economic and S o c ia l
H is to r y o f th e M iddle to e s (New York: The C entury Company,
1928)', p . 61.
^ Loc. c i t .
1 8
program f o r e le v a tin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and b e t t e r i n g
s o c i a l c o n d itio n s . But more g e n e r a lly th a n o th e rw is e , th e
S to ic would assume an a t t i t u d e o f p a s s iv e su b m issio n to h i s
environm ent, and tr u e to h i s te a c h in g , would s t r i v e to sup
p re s s a l l d e s i r e s . He would be unmoved by e i t h e r su c c e ss o r
f a i l u r e .
By and l a r g e , t h e r e f o r e . S to ic is m proved to o i n d i
v i d u a l i s t i c in tem per t o r e s u l t in any g r e a t program o f
s o c i a l im provem ent, i n s p i t e o f th e e f f o r t s o f c e r t a i n of
i t s l e a d e r s . S to ic is m f a i l e d l a r g e l y because i t was a r e
l i g i o n o f re a s o n , and as such ap p e ale d e x c lu s iv e ly to th e
h ig h ly i n t e l l e c t u a l . I n s t r i v i n g to be h is b e s t s e l f , th e
S to ic l o s t s ig h t o f th e m asses. But th e e f f o r t s o f th e •
E p icu rea n s and th e S to ic s must not be o v erlo o k ed in any
e v a lu a tio n o f th e s o c ia l in f lu e n c e s a t work in th e Homan
lire w ith th e coming o f C h r i s t i a n i t y ,
CHAPTER I I I
THE SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY
As h as been s t a t e d , i t i s th e p u rp o se o f t h i s d i s
c u ssio n to tr a c e th e developm ent o f C h r i s t i a n i t y ’s con
s c io u s n e s s of s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y from i t s in c e p tio n to
th e p r e s e n t day, in o rd e r to d is c o v e r th e in f lu e n c e s and
movements t h a t combined to p re p a re th e background of th e
p r e s e n t em phasis on S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y . To do t h i s , i t
w i l l be n e c e ss a ry to p r e s e n t th e s o c i a l i d e a l s and p r a c t i c e s
o f th e church in th e v a rio u s p e rio d s o f i t s h i s t o r y , and to
tr a c e th e more im p o rta n t developm ents b e a rin g upon th e s o c i a l
work o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . In t h i s d is c u s s io n , fo llo w in g th e
p r a c t i c e o f many church h i s t o r i a n s , i t w i l l be co n v en ien t to
c o n s id e r th e s u b je c t in th e p e r io d s o f th e E a rly Church, th e
Church o f th e M iddle Ages, and th e Modern Church.
The e s s e n t i a l co n cen ts of th e E a rly C hurch. P erhaps
th e r e i s no b e t t e r way to b e g in th e d is c u s s io n o f th e sub
j e c t under c o n s id e r a tio n th an to s e t f o r t h a number o f ques
tio n s which w i l l su g g e st th e problem . What were th e
e s s e n t i a l te a c h in g s o f th e E a rly Church? To what e x te n t d id
C h r i s t i a n i t y in i t s e a r l y y e a rs em phasize i t s s o c i a l a s p e c ts ?
Was th e new r e l i g i o n d u rin g th e p e rio d o f i t s in fa n c y one
t h a t s t r e s s e d th e p h ases o f r e l i g i o u s l i v i n g hav in g to do
20
w ith t h e improvement o f l i v i n g c o n d itio n s and th e b e tte rm e n t
o f s o c ie ty in g e n e ra l? Did th e main em phasis o f e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n i t y te n d to move alo n g o th e r l i n e s to th e n e g le c t
o f i t s l a r g e r s o c i a l im p lic a tio n s ?
Of g re a t im portance in a r r i v i n g a t th e answ ers to
th e s e q u e s tio n s a r e th e e s s e n t i a l te a c h in g s o f th e E a rly
Church, f o r th e s e te a c h in g s d eterm in ed to a la rg e e x te n t th e
s o c i a l id e a ls and p r a c t i c e s o f th e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s . In h is
r e c e n t book The C h r is t ia n I d e a l f o r Human S o c ie ty . Dr. G arvie
p r e s e n ts in v ery t e r s e form th e main t e n e t s and c h a r a c te r
i s t i c s of th e e a r l y C h r is t ia n G roups, The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f th e P r im itiv e Church, he sa y s, were b r i e f l y th e s e :
The c o n fe s s io n o f Je su s as th e C h r is t (M essiah) and
Lord, . , , The e a g e r e x p e c ta tio n o f His speedy Second
Advent in power and g lo r y to judge mankind and to
u s h e r in th e Kingdom o f God; th e in te n s e e x p e rie n c e o f
new en th u siasm and f r e s h energy by th e p re se n c e and
p o s s e s s io n o f th e h o ly s p i r i t ; and though le s s prom inent
in th e e a r l y w r i t i n g s , th e p r e s e r v a tio n o f th e memory
o f a l l th a t Je su s d id in His e a r l y l i f e . I
One o f th e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in p a r t i c u l a r i s o f im
p o rta n c e h e re , f o r in i t we f i n d th e c lu e to th e a t t i t u d e of
th e E a rly Church in m a tte r s of s o c i a l c o n c ern , nam ely, th e
b e l i e f t h a t C h r is t would s p e e d ily r e t u r n to e a r t h a g a in and
s e t up a new Kingdom. So im p o rta n t was t h i s b e l i e f , t h a t
th e e a r l y C h r is t ia n s were suprem ely concern ed about g e t t i n g
^ A lfre d E. G a rv ie , The C h r is t ia n I d e a l f o r Human
S o c ie ty (New York: Hodder S to u g h to n & Company, 1930), p . 81.
SI
th e m selv es re a d y f o r H is a p p e a ra n c e . I t i?as b e lie v e d by
them t h a t th e c i v i l i z a t i o n a s i t th e n e x i s te d in th e Hmpire
had not lo n g to s u r v iv e . The M essian ic Judgment would ta k e
p la c e im m ediately upon C h r i s t 's r e t u r n to be fo llo w e d by th e
b e g in n in g o f th e New Age in w hich C h r is t would u s h e r in th e
New Kingdom, These g r e a t e v e n ts were b u t a s h o r t way o f f ,
"The end o f a l l th in g s was a t h a n d ," ^
The e a r l y C h r is t ia n le a d e r s summoned t h e i r h e a re rs to
p re p a re f o r th e impending d ay of Judgment when e a r t h l y goods
would be w o rth le ss* They ex h o rte d men to la y up tr e a s u r e in
Heaven, f o r th e t r e a s u r e s o f Heaven were suprem ely v a lu a b le
w h ile th e th in g s o f e a r t h would soon p ass away. In sp e ak in g
o f th e E a rly Church T ro e lts c h says t h a t , "A ll th e em phasis
i s l a i d on p r e p a r in g f o r th e Kingdom o f G-od,*'^
I t i s not s u r p r i s i n g in view o f such an i n f l u e n t i a l
c o n c e p tio n , th a t th e e a r l y C h r is t ia n s were somewhat i n d i f f
e r e n t to th e c o n d itio n s in t h i s w o rld , not t h a t th e y la c k e d
r e l i g i o u s z e a l, but sim ply th a t a tte m p ts to b e t t e r th e con
d i t i o n s o f th e p r e s e n t o rd e r were o u ts id e t h e i r range o f
i n t e r e s t s and were n o t c o n s id e re d to be t h e i r ta s k . T his
id e a i s c l e a r l y e x p re sse d by S h a ile r Matthews in th e
^ I P e te r , 4 :7 .
3
E rn e s t T r o e lts c h , The S o c ia l Teaching o f th e
Churches (New York: The M acm illan Company, 1931),
âs
fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n :
W e f in d th e A p o stle s p o sse sse d o f a c o n se rv a tism in
s o c i a l m a tte rs am ounting alm ost to i n d i f f e r e n c e . The
e a r l y c h u rch was not a s o c ie ty f o r e t h i c a l c u l t u r e ,
much l e s s a s o c ie ty f o r s o c i a l re fo rm .^
A nother s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t grew o u t o f th e f a c t t h a t
th e coming Kingdom h e ld such a prom inent p la c e in th e
thought o f th e E a rly C hurch. I t had th e e f f e c t o f fo c u s in g
a t t e n t i o n upon th e in d iv i d u a l and th e f u tu r e w o rld and away
from s o c ie ty a s i t i s in th e p re s e n t w o rld . I n d iv id u a ls
were to be saved from th e w o rld and e n t e r th e New Kingdom
but th e w orld was to be l o s t . One of th e g r e a t problem s o f
C h r i s t i a n i t y in i t s e a r l y y e a rs was to d iv e s t i t s e l f o f i t s
e x c e s s iv e in d iv id u a lis m . I n sp e ak in g o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y ,
Case makes t h i s s ta te m e n t:
Not u n t i l i t le a r n e d to abandon, or a t l e a s t to s u p p le
ment e x te n s iv e ly , i t s e a r l i e r in d iv id u a lis m , was i t in
a p o s i t i o n to meet th e w id er range o f demands c u r r e n t
in a s o c ie ty lo n g accustom ed to seek d iv in e h e lp in th e
f i e l d o f econom ic, p o l i t i c a l , and c u l t u r a l l i f e . 5
To i l l u s t r a t e th e p r a c t i c a l in flu e n c e o f t h i s " o th e r
w o rld ly ” em phasis, i t i s o n ly n e c e s s a ry to p o in t to a con
c r e t e example o f i t s im p lic a tio n s . Why, f o r in s ta n c e , should
th e e a r l y C h r is tia n s la b o r to f r e e th e s la v e s o r to e r a d ic a te
^ S h a ile r Mathews, The M essian ic Hope in th e New
Testam ent (C hicago: U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago P r e s s , 1904), p .
374,
5
S h ir le y Jackson Case, S o c ia l Triumph o f th e A ncient
Church (New York: H arp ers and B ro th e rs , 1933), p . 35.
85
suoh a p r e v a le n t e v i l as p r o s t i t u t i o n when th e y were sim ply
elem en ts in a w icked w orld w hich would p e r is h a t th e end o f
th e Age, and he r e p la c e d by the Kingdom o f God?
Yet in s p i t e of th e f a c t t h a t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s were
l a r g e l y " o th e r w o rld ly ," th e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s d id n o t l i v e
l i v e s a p a rt from th e r e s t o f s o c ie ty a s has som etim es been
th o u g h t. On th e whole th e y were c i t i z e n s o f the Roman
Empire and though members o f a new f a i t h c o u ld h a rd ly be
s in g le d out as su ch .
The w id esp read id e a t h a t th e e a r l y C h r is t ia n s l i v e d a
tr o g lo d y te l i f e h idden away in c e l l a r s , underground
g a l l e r i e s , catacom bs, i s a ro m an tic and f a n t a s t i c
h a l l u c i n a t i o n . . . W e cannot doubt t h a t th e shop
k e e p e r o r tr a d e r who was co n v e rte d d id n o t as a r u le
a l t e r th e outw ard ap p earan ce o f h i s l i f e . P eo p le m ight
co n v erse w ith him in th e s t r e e t or in th e forum and
o b serv e no re a s o n to s u s p e c t him o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . ^
Even though th e C h r is t ia n was a member o f th e
"Community o f S a i n t s , ” he m ust go on l i v i n g in th e m id st o f
a pagan environm ent. He must tr a d e w ith h e a th e n a s s o c i a t e s ,
o r c a t e r to pagan cu sto m ers. The s la v e must c o n tin u e to
se rv e h i s m a s te r w hether pagan or C h r i s t i a n .
We may sa y , th e n , w ith o u t h e s i t a t i o n t h a t th e e a r l y
C h r is t ia n s were found w an tin g when i t came to th e m a tte r o f
c a rr y in g o u t what we now i n t e r p r e t to be t h e s o c i a l
^ James W e s tf a ll Thompson, ^ > 0 . Economic and S o c ia l
H is to r y o f th e M iddle Ages (New York: The C en tu ry Company,
, p . CO.
24
im p lic a tio n s o f Jesus* m essage. N e v e rth e le s s , i t would be
u n ju s t in t h i s c o n n e c tio n to f a i l to m ention th e very e v id e n t
power o f th e G ospel of lo v e w ith in th e C h r is t ia n s o c i e t i e s .
Even P a u l, who i s o f te n accu sed o f b e g in n in g th e movement
t h a t to o k C h r i s t i a n i t y from th e realm o f p r a c t i c a l conduct
in to th e realm o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l s p e c u la tio n , gave a c e r t a i n
p la c e , in c id e n t a l though i t was, to th e s o c i a l a s p e c ts o f
th e G ospel. "L et us work t h a t which i s good tow ard a l l men,"*^
he say s to th e G a la tia n s . And to th e Romans he w r i t e s , " I f
th in e enemy h u n g er, fe e d him; i f he t h i r s t , g iv e him to
d r i n k . I t can be seen t h a t th e s e and many o th e r o f h is
p r a c t i c a l te a c h in g s a r e in harmony w ith th e te a c h in g s o f
C h r i s t i a n i t y ’s fo u n d e r. They a r e , m oreover, th e r o o t o u t o f
w hich was to come by d e g re e s , th e flo w e rin g and th e f r u i t a g e
t h a t we a r e now b e g in n in g to r e a l i z e in modern s o c ie ty .
In s p i t e o f such i d e a l i s t i c e x h o r ta tio n s and p r a c t i c e s ,
how ever, th e s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s of th e e a r l y C h r is tia n s were
l i m ite d alm ost e n t i r e l y to th e membership o f th e Church, and
had l i t t l e e f f e c t upon s o c ie ty a t la r g e in th e Homan Em pire.
T his was to be e x p e c te d , o f c o u rse , f o r th e young church had
n o t y e t g o t i t s b e a r in g s . I t was looked upon m erely a s one
o f many l i t t l e g ro u p s. I t was not y e t "monarch o f a l l I
^ G a la tia n s , 6 :1 0 .
^ Romans, 1 2 :2 0 .
25
s u rv e y ." B efore i t co u ld become a s o c i a l le a v e n i t must
f i r s t re a c h a s t a t e o f some a u t h o r i t y o v er th e s o c i a l o r d e r .
As y e t th e y had n o t come to f e e l a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e
s o c i a l o r d e r . I t to o k long and v a r ie d e x p e rie n c e s in th e
s o c i a l o rd e r b e fo re C h r is tia n s d isc o v e re d t h e i r r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y in re g a rd to i t . In h e re n t in th e G ospel were many
r a d i c a l , s o c i a l and economic i d e a l s , but th e E a rly Church
d id n o t a tte m p t to c a r r y them o u t f o r th e re a so n t h a t i t
would n o t have been p o s s i b le , f o r th e y w ere s c a r c e ly a drop
i n th e bucket o f th e Roman Em pire. The Church, a lth o u g h
p o s s e s s in g a h e r ita g e o f s o c i a l c o n c e p tio n s and i d e a l s , o f
n e c e s s i t y must b e g in to c a r r y them o u t u nder a c tu a l c o n d i
tio n s é The G ospel o f lo v e and c h a r i t y found e x p re s s io n in
alm s, r e l i e v i n g th e d i s t r e s s o f widows, o rp h an s, th e s ic k ,
th e in f ir m , and p r is o n e r s in q u a r r ie s and m ines. O u tsid e
t h i s l im ite d sp h ere th e Church made l i t t l e im p re ssio n on
s o c ie ty a t la r g e and d id l i t t l e to change c o n d itio n s .
S la v e ry co n tin u e d to be re c o g n iz e d as a C h r is t ia n i n s t i t u
t i o n , Economic i n e q u a l i t i e s c o n tin u e d to be as w id e -sp re a d
a s e v e r , C h r is t ia n e n e rg ie s were s p e n t in a l l e v i a t i n g th e
c u r r e n t d i s t r e s s e s in th e e x i s t i n g s o c i a l o r d e r . Case says
t h a t :
C h a r ita b le a c t i v i t i e s and h u m a n ita ria n a t t i t u d e s were
s i g n i f i c a n t l y a c c e le r a te d under th e i n s p i r a t i o n o f
th e new f a i t h , but th e fu ndam ental s t r u c t u r e o f s o c ie ty
86
rem ained e s s e n t i a l l y u n a ffe c te d .,^
The tr a n s f o rm a tio n of s o c ie ty which Je su s had en
v is io n e d was alm ost f o r g o tt e n , F o r, why sh o u ld th e y sse k
to change a s o c ie ty which was soon to p a s s away by th e mi
ra c u lo u s i n t e r v e n tio n of God to be r e p la c e d by a new o rd e r
in which C h r is t would r e ig n f o re v e r ?
Thus we se e t h a t d u rin g th e y e a rs o f th e E a rly Church
i t was t h i s a p o c a ly p tic e x p e c ta tio n , to g e th e r w ith th e nu
m e ric a l l i m i t a t i o n , th a t overshadowed th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a
s o c i a l em p h asisè And i t must be acknow ledge t h a t e x i s t i n g
ev id en ce fa v o rs t h e view t h a t th e s o c i a l c o n c e p tio n o f th e
G ospel was n o t y e t s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r to be seen as one o f
i t s e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts.
^ Case, p £ . c i t . . p . 12,
CHAPTER IV
LATER DEVELOPMENTS OF THE EARLY CHURCH
As tim e went on and the e x p e c te d r e t u r n o f C h r is t to
e s t a b l i s h h i s Kingdom was d e lay ed a g a in and a g a in , th e
C h r is t ia n s d u rin g th e second, t h i r d and f o u r th c e n tu r ie s be
gan to lo o k more and more upon th e Church as th e outw ard ex
p r e s s io n o f C h r i s t ’ s Kingdom on e a r t h . While t h i s t r a n s i t i o n
was ta k in g p la c e th e r e was a ls o a change in a t t i t u d e tow ard
th e p r e s e n t w o rld . I n s te a d o f w a itin g f o r a f u tu r e r e t u r n
o f C h r is t to b rin g about th e Kingdom w ith i t s i d e a l s o c ia l
c o n d itio n s , C h r is tia n s slo w ly now began to p o in t t h e i r e f
f o r t s in th e d i r e c t i o n o f tra n s fo rm in g th e e v i l s o f th e
p r e s e n t o r d e r , and making th e l i v i n g c o n d itio n s o f s o c ie ty
more d e s i r a b l e .
There were s e v e r a l r e a s o n s , how ever, why C h r is tia n s
were very g r e a t l y lim ite d in any work o f s o c i a l a m e lio ra
t i o n . F i r s t o f a l l , acco u n t must be ta k e n o f th e h i s t o r
i c a l f a c t t h a t changes in s o c i a l c o n s c io u sn e ss a re never
made r a p i d l y . O ften what seems to be a lo n g le a p fo rw ard in
t h i s sp h e re proves to be d e c e p tio n , and s o c ie ty f a l l s back
and s t a r t s a g a in , and u s u a lly now w ith more c a u tio n and l e s s
speed; f o r tim e i s a m ighty f a c t o r in s o c i a l change. Then,
a g a in , th e v e ry e x c lu s iv e and p r i v a t e n a tu r e o f th e E a r ly
Church o r g a n iz a tio n a ro u se d a c o n s id e r a b le amount o f
28
s u s p ic io n on th e p a r t o f a u t h o r i t i e s . A ccording to H atch:
T here was more th a n one a tte m p t a t r e p r e s s i o n . The
S ta te f e a r e d l e s t th e honeycombing o f th e Empire by
o r g a n iz a tio n s w hich in t h e i r n a tu re were p r i v a t e , and
so tended to be s e c r e t m i g h t be a so u rc e o f p o l i t i c a l
d a n g e r.^
Not o n ly so , b u t b ecau se o f t h e i r p e c u l i a r custom s and
manner o f w o rsh ip , th e e a r l y C h r is t ia n s were c a l l e d a " t h i r d
r a c e ." In th e Homan Empire th e S ta te claim ed th e r ig h t to
d e c id e what Gods m ight be w o rsh ip p ed . The C h r is t ia n s wor
sh ip p e d none o f th e Homan gods, and t h e r e f o r e , being o u ts id e
th e law were su re to be exposed to th e a t ta c k s of bo th p r i
v a te m a lic e and p o p u la r fre n z y . The p e r s e c u tio n s however,
a re n o t to be th o u g h t o f a s going on a l l th e tim e, but as
s p o ra d ic o u tb re a k s o f th e a n t i - C h r i s t i a n f e e l i n g which was
p r e s e n t in th e Roman Em pire,
A nother f a c t must be c o n s id e re d among f o rc e s t h a t com
b in ed to l i m i t th e s o c i a l c o n c e p tio n s and work o f th e Church
in th e t h i r d , f o u r th , and f i f t h c e n tu r ie s ; nam ely, th e em
p h a s is of th e Church upon d o c t r i n a l c o n t r o v e r s i e s . D uring
th e f o u r th and f i f t h c e n t u r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h i s was th e
dom inant em phasis o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . To us l i v i n g in th e
tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , m a tte rs o f th e o lo g ic a l concern would c e r
t a i n l y n o t be param ount as f a r a s everyday i n t e r e s t i s
1 Edwin H atch, The O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e E a rly Church
(London: R iv in g to n , W aterloo P la c e , 1882}, p . 27.
29
concerned b u t i t was n o t so in th e E a rly C hurch. As
Thompson s a y s :
Men o f e v e ry c l a s s d e b a te d th e c u r r e n t t h e o lo g ic a l
t e n e t s o f th e tim e as h o t l y as men nowadays d is c u s s
p o l i t i c s * T his i n t e r e s t ex ten d ed from th e h ig h e s t to
th e lo w est ran g es o f s o c i e t y . Gregory o f Nyssa has
p re s e rv e d f o r us an amusing d e s c r ip tio n o f t h i s p o p u la r
i n t e r e s t in th e o lo g y . He w rote o f C o n s ta n tin o p le in
th e f o u r th c e n tu ry : "T h is c i t y i s f u l l o f m echanics
and s la v e s , who a re a l l o f them p rofound th e o lo g ia n s ,
and p re a c h in th e shops and in th e s t r e e t s . I f you
d e s i r e a man to change a p ie c e o f s i l v e r , he inform s
you w h erein th e Son d i f f e r s from th e F a th e r; i f you
ask th e p r ic e o f a l o a f , you a re t o l d by way o f r e p ly
t h a t th e Son i s i n f e r i o r to th e F a th e r; and i f you i n
q u ir e w hether th e b a th i s re a d y , t h e answer i s t h a t th e
Son was made o u t o f n o th in g ." Almost th e whole en erg y
o f th e Church became ab so rb ed in d o c t r i n a l c o n tro
v e r s i e s . %
Then, to o , th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e Church i t s e l f
was consuming an in c r e a s in g l y la r g e amount o f th e tim e and
en erg y of th e Church l e a d e r s . Of c o u rs e , i t i s n o t d i f f i
c u l t to s e e , th e r e f o r e , in view o f th e many d i s t r a c t i n g i n
f lu e n c e s , t h a t th e e f f o r t s of th e Church in c a rry in g o u t th e
s o c i a l im p lic a tio n s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y d u rin g th e c e n tu r ie s
u nder c o n s id e r a tio n were d e c id e d ly in a d e q u a te and r a t h e r d i s
co u rag in g on th e w hole.
But as th e C h r i s t i a n s p i r i t s t e a d i l y p e n e tr a te d in to
th e l i f e o f th e Roman E m pire, i t g r a d u a lly e n la rg e d i t s
ran g e o f a c t i v i t y and in f lu e n c e . The f i r s t C h r is t ia n groups
o
James W e s tf a ll Thompson, ^ Economic and S o c ia l
H is to r y o f th e M iddle A^es (Hew York: The C entury Company,
1928), pp. 7 9 f.
so
were composed alm ost e n t i r e l y o f th e low er c l a s s e s , hut
g r a d u a lly th e r i c h and more i n f l u e n t i a l c l a s s e s came in to
th e Church so th a t by th e c lo s e o f th e f o u r th c e n tu ry
C h r i s t i a n i t y was w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d as a l e g a l r e l i g i o n , was
r e s p e c ta b le and was re a s o n a b ly se c u re as f a r as s o c i a l p r e s
t i g e was co n c ern ed . Yet t h i s sudden p o p u la r it y had b o th
h arm fu l and b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s which w i l l be d e a l t w ith
l a t e r in a n o th e r c o n n e c tio n .
At t h i s p o in t one im p o rta n t id e a needs to be empha
s iz e d and brought out c l e a r l y , nam ely, th e f a c t t h a t th e
s o c i a l c o n s c io u sn e ss o f th e Church cannot be s a id y e t to
have been a ro u se d . Not t h a t i t once had t h i s c o n sc io u sn e ss
and l o s t i t ; but t h a t i t was yet to se e i t s s o c i a l m is s io n .
The Church saw c l e a r l y in d iv id u a l s i n and la b o re d f o r i n d i
v id u a l s a lv a ti o n ; men were c a n d id a te s f o r heaven, n o t f o r a
Kingdom o f God on e a r t h ; b u t th e Church seems n o t y e t to
have re a c h e d th e c o n c e p tio n o f c o r p o ra te s i n and th e need o f
c o r p o ra te s a l v a t i o n . Also i t was q u ite d e f i n i t e l y com m itted
to m in is te r to th e needy, th e s i c k , th e s u f f e r i n g ; b u t such
a th in g a s a s ic k and s i n f u l s o c i a l o rd e r seems n o t y e t to
have been in t h e i r th in k in g — a t l e a s t i t was fa r from th e
must s t a g e .
A nother th in g to be c o n s id e re d in t h i s c o n n e c tio n i s
th e f a c t th a t in th e f i r s t few c e n tu r ie s th e Church was
l a r g e l y ab so rb ed in ex p a n sio n , b o th g e o g r a p h ic a lly and
SX
n u m e ric a lly , t h a t i s , in i t s e x te n s iv e growth i t c o u ld n o t
o r d id n o t have tim e f o r so much in te n s iv e grow th— to g iv e
a t t e n t i o n to se e k in g o u t what was i m p l i c i t in th e G ospel.
As th e Church g o t more tim e f o r t h i s I n te n s iv e s tu d y , i t made
new d is c o v e r ie s in th e im p lic a tio n s o f s o c i a l C h r i s t i a n i t y .
The s o c i a l im petus o f th e C h r is tia n G ospel, how ever,
was n o t c o m p le te ly la c k in g in t h i s p e r io d . There were many
so u rc e s o f im m o ra lity , in to which th e Church began to pour
th e p u r if y in g q u a l i t i e s of i t s m essage. The s ta g e and aren a
were p o w erfu l in f lu e n c e s in th e d i r e c t i o n o f im m o ra lity , and
a tte n d a n c e was fo rb id d e n to C h r is t ia n s as an a c t o f a p o s ta s y .
T h e a te rs were fo rb id d e n to C h r i s t i a n s , f o r th e y sought to
change th e c o n d itio n s o f th e a c to r s who were "a c l a s s en
sla v e d to v i c e . ” C o n s ta n tin e fo rb a d e s o l d i e r s to ta k e p a r t
in g l a d i a t o r i a l shows and V a le n tin ia n exempted C h r is t ia n s
from s u f f e r i n g punishm ent in th e a re n a . As S te w a rt sa y s :
"A ttem pts to su p p re ss th e shows ( g l a d i a t o r i a l ) were made but
d o u b tle s s u n d er C h r is t ia n i n f l u e n c e .”^
By th e f o u r th c e n tu ry C h r is t ia n s were b e g in n in g to see
s la v e r y an i n s t i t u t i o n which would n o t be r e c o n c ile d w ith th e
C h r i s t i a n te a c h in g o f th e e s s e n t i a l e q u a l i t y o f a l l men.
When th e v i c t o r y o f C h r i s t i a n i t y was r e a l i z e d under
^ H. F. S te w a rt, in Cambridge M edieval H i s t o r y . Vol
I , J . M * Gwatkin, e d i t o r (New York: The M acm illan Company,
1911), p . 593.
38
C o n s ta n tin e , he d id n o t a tte m p t w h o le sa le e m a n c ip a tio n , f o r
i t would have been both unw ise and im p o s s ib le . But by le g
i s l a t i o n he a tte m p te d refo rm s t h a t were in d eed p r o g re s s iv e
c o n s id e rin g th e tim e .
He t r i e d to p re v e n t th e ex p o sin g o f c h ild r e n ;
he fo rb a d e c r u e l t y tow ard s la v e s ; . . . he fo rb a d e
th e b re a k in g up of s e r v i l e f a m i l i e s ; he d e c la re d
em an cip atio n to be th e "most d e s i r a b l e . " He t r a n s
f e r r e d th e p ro c e s s o f m anum ission from pagan to
C h r is tia n p la c e s o f w o rs h ip .^
I n th e Church th e r e was a c o n tin u a tio n o f th e p r a c t i c e o f
c h a r i t y . Hot th e l e a s t o f th e d e b ts which th e w orld owes
to th e f o u r th c e n tu ry C h r i s t i a n i t y i s i t s in v e n tio n o f open
h o s p i t a l s . The e f f o r t s o f th e Church on b e h a lf o f women
d u rin g th e e a r l y c e n tu r ie s a re a ls o p ra is e w o rth y .
Yet on th e whole th e in flu e n c e o f th e s o c i a l a c h ie v e
m ents d u rin g th e l a t e r c e n tu r ie s o f th e e a r l y p e rio d were
s c a r c e l y g r e a t e r by com parison th a n t h a t o f th e p re c e d in g
c e n t u r i e s . C o n sid e ra b le work was done, b u t as in th e e a r l i e r
p e r io d th e s o c i a l a s p e c ts o f C h r i s t i a n i t y re c e iv e d compara
t i v e l y l i t t l e em phasis. I n d is c u s s in g s o c i a l C h r i s t i a n i t y
d u rin g th e f i r s t th r e e c e n tu r ie s D r. Bauschenbusdi^ says th a t
th e S ta te was h o s t i l e , and any m oral campaign a g a in s t th e
s o c i a l wrongs was im p o s s ib le . He th e n goes on to show upon
^ S te w a rt, lo o . c i t .
5
W a lte r R auschenbusch, C h r i s t i a n i t y and th e S o c ia l
C r i s i s (Hew York: George H. Doran Company, 1907), p . 157.
55
th e b a s is o f J e s u s ’ te a c h ia g t h a t th e r e was a s tr o n g s o c i a l
G ospel dormant in e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y , y e t he c o n tin u e s :
In s p i t e o f th e p o w e rfu l s o c i a l im petus r e s i d i n g in
p r im it iv e C h r i s t i a n i t y such a p ro c e s s o f c o n sc io u s
m o ral r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c i e t y a s we co n c eiv e to d a y
was bo th t h e o r e t i c a l l y and p r a c t i c a l l y o u t o f th e
q u e s tio n in th e f i r s t th r e e c e n tu rie s .®
A lthough m ention has a lr e a d y been made o f th e " v e r t i
c a l ex p an sio n " o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .b e f o r e th e tim e o f C o n s ta n tin e ,
th e f a c t i s of s u f f i c i e n t im portance t h a t a t t e n t i o n may be
c a lle d to i t a g a in . From th e s la v e and low er i n d u s t r i a l
c l a s s e s , C h r i s t i a n i t y g r a d u a lly p e n e tr a te d upward in to th e
ran k s o f th e w e ll- to - d o and th e r i c h a r i s t o c r a c y . Case^
t e l l s us t h a t by th e m iddle o f th e t h i r d c e n tu ry w e ll- to - d o
C h r is t ia n s had become so numerous t h a t th e c o n f is c a tio n o f
t h e i r w e a lth and goods in th e tim e of p e r s e c u tio n made a
welcome a d d i tio n to th e Governm ent’ s incom e. So r a p i d was
th e grow th o f th e Church among th e upper c l a s s e s t h a t in 515,
C o n s ta n tin e in th e E d ic t o f M ilan g ra n te d r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a
t i o n , which meant t h a t b o th C h r is t ia n p e rso n s and p r o p e r ty
would now be p r o te c te d by law .
The Church becomes ab so rb ed in w o rld ly a f f a i r s . W ith
th e a d o p tio n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y as th e o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o n by
^ I b i d . , p . 158.
1
S h ir l e y Jack so n C ase, S o c ia l Triumph o f th e A ncient
Church (Hew York: H arp ers and B ro th e rs , 1935), p . 73.
34
C o n s ta n tin e , a v e ry s i g n i f i c a n t change to o k p la c e w ith in th e
C hurch, The f i r s t e f f e c t o f t h i s seem ing triu m p h o f
C h r i s t i a n i t y was to low er th e id e a l o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i t s e l f .
The Church became more and more c o r r u p t, due in a la r g e
m easure to th e f a c t th a t a l l c l a s s e s were now p o u rin g i n t o ,
th e C hurch, To become a C h r is t ia n was th e p o p u la r th in g to
do; and most everyone was doing i t . T h is a d d i t i o n a l in f lu x
i n t o th e C h r i s t i a n f o ld in c lu d e d many o f th e w e a lth y and i n
f l u e n t i a l c l a s s e s a s w e ll as a la r g e number who were sim ply
nom inal C h r is tia n s and who w ere s t i l l pagan a t h e a r t . Both
o f th e s e groups w ere to have a g r e a t in f lu e n c e upon th e fu
t u r e developm ents o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . The nom inal C h r is tia n s
who m erely fo llo w ed th e r e s t in to th e Church brought w ith
them t h e i r pagan s o c i a l s ta n d a rd s and m oral q u a l i t i e s . T h is
had th e e f f e c t o f lo w e rin g th e s ta n d a rd s o f th e Church and
o f b lu r r i n g th e l i n e between th e Church and th e w o rld . F o l
low ing th e example of C o n s ta n tin e th e g o v ern in g c l a s s e s and
r i c h came in , to add so g r e a t l y to th e w e a lth o f th e Church
t h a t i t s r ic h e s soon became i t s c h i e f so u rc e o f c o r r u p tio n .
"By th e f o u r th c e n tu ry th e church o f th e poor had become th e
chu rch o f th e r i c h and p o w e rfu l." ^ No lo n g e r a r e l i g i o u s
s o c i e t y o f th e poor and m iddle c l a s s p e o p le th e Church had
now become h ie r a r c h i c in form of governm ent, w ith lu x u rio u s
® E lle n S c o tt D avison, F o re ru n n e rs o f S t . F ra n c is
(B oston: Houghton M i f f l i n Company, 1987), p , 12,
35
t a s t e s and se e k in g w e a lth and in f lu e n c e .
But when th e Church g ain ed th e fa v o r o f th e S ta te ,
th e C h r i s t i a n c le r g y , l i k e th e pagan p r i e s t s , were g ra n te d
exem ption from t a x a t i o n . T his was a most welcome fa v o r con
s i d e r i n g th e o p p re s s iv e n a tu re o f th e ta x e s a t th e tim e . As
T in o g ra d o ff sa y s: "B oth h e a th e n and C h r is t ia n a u th o rs t e s t i f y
to th e c ru s h in g burden o f ta x a ti o n d u rin g th e f o u r th and
f i f t h c e n t u r i e s ." ^ But th e exem ption o f th e c le r g y had a
h ig h ly d e trim e n ta l e f f e c t upon th e C hurch, f o r th e r e fo llo w ed
a v e r i t a b l e ru s h f o r p o s i t i o n s in th e Church by a l l ty p e s o f
men d e s i r i n g to escape th e burdensome ta x e s .
But th e r a p i d l y in c r e a s in g w e a lth of th e Church was
th e cau se o f f a r more d e t e r i o r a t i o n th a n th e p r i v i l e g e s and
exem ptions which were g ra n te d to i t . W ith th e E d ic t o f M ilan
a l l p r o p e r ty c o n f is c a te d d u rin g th e p e r s e c u tio n s was r e s t o r e d
to th e Church.
C o n s ta n tin e and h i s m other H elena were la v is h in t h e i r
b e n e fa c tio n s to th e Church.
The Church was a ls o giv en u n lim ite d c a p a c ity to a c c e p t
g i f t s by w i l l o r b e q u e st, and such le g a c ie s became a form o f
9
P au l V in o g ra d o ff, Cambridge M edieval H i s t o r y . V ol.
1 , H. M. Gwatkin, e d i t o r (New York; The M acm illan Company,
1 9 1 1 ), p . 556.
Thompson, p £ . c i t . . p . 67.
36
r e l i g i o u s o b l i g a t i o n . D avison^^ sa y s t h a t b e fo re lo n g i t
became alm ost a s i n to d ie w ith o u t b esto w in g som ething on
th e C hurch.
Here th e Church was g e t t i n g , n o t g iv in g ; a s o c i a l l y
minded Church r e v e r s e s t h i s . I t f i r s t b eg in s to g iv e i t s e l f
to " s o c i a l s e rv ic e " and t h i s w i l l n a t u r a l l y be fo llo w ed by
i n t e r e s t in and work f o r th e r e l i e f o f o r amendment o f con
d i t i o n s t h a t make s o c i a l s e r v ic e n e c e s s a r y .
So f a r was th e Church from th e sim ple c h a r a c te r o f
A p o sto lic C h r i s t i a n i t y and th e s i m p l i c i t y of J e s u s ’ te a c h in g
t h a t many became d i s s a t i s f i e d . B rib e ry , d i s p u t in g s , r i v a l r y ,
and a l l o th e r form s of c o r r u p tio n to be found when a Church'
o r n a tio n goes mad over r i c h e s , made c o n d itio n s I n t o l e r a b l e
f o r th o se s in c e r e ly se e k in g r e l i g i o u s s a t i s f a c t i o n . In th e
words of D uchesne, " th e church had become an im p o ssib le
d w e llin g p la c e f o r anyone who w ished to l i v e a r e a l l y
1 2
C h r is t ia n l i f e . " The i n e v ita b le r e a c t i o n was bound to
fo llo w . P u re r h e a r t s f l e d in to th e d e s e r t s and m ountains to
escap e such d e p lo ra b le c o n d itio n s .
D avison, o ^. c i t . . p . 13.
Thompson, op.. c i t . . p . 79
CHAPTER V
THE IRFIXTENCE OF MONASTICISM
H i s t o r i c a l background o f m o n a stlc lsm . . In i t s e a r l y
o r i g i n and developm ent, m o n a stic ism may be a t t r i b u t e d to a
number o f f a c t o r s , some o f them in h e re n t in C h r i s t i a n i t y from
th e f i r s t c e n tu ry , some a r i s i n g o u t o f th e h i s t o r y o f th e
C h r i s t i a n movement up to th e f i f t h c e n tu r y , and some f in d in g
e n tra n c e from th e w orld o u ts id e th e C hurch. J e s u s h im s e lf
was a c e l i b a t e , and a sa y in g a t t r i b u t e d to him has been r e -
p e a te d ly q u o ted as g iv in g s a n c t i t y to th a t s t a t e . M oreover,
a lth o u g h he was n o t an a s c e t i c , he p o in te d out th e d angers
o f th e ow nership o f p r o p e r ty and seemed to e x a lt v o lu n ta ry
p o v e r ty .^ Among J e s u s ’ te a c h in g s , P a u l was u n ab le to f in d
any w hich d e f i n i t e l y e n jo in e d c e lib a c y , but he b e lie v e d i t to
be p r e f e r a b l e to m atrim ony. D uring th e second c e n tu ry th e r e
w ere many g ro u p s, in c lu d in g th e G n o s tic s , and th e M a rc io n ite s ,
and th e M o n ta n ists t h a t ad v o c a te d a s c e t i c p r a c t i c e s .
G n o stic ism was th e g r e a t foe a g a in s t which C h r i s t i a n i t y had
fo u g h t f o r i t s l i f e . And Workman sa y s t h a t " I n th e th e o
l o g i c a l se n se i t had been d e f e a te d , b u t in th e p o p u la r l i f e
o f th e Church G n o sticism changed i t s name and trium phed in
^ M atthew, 1 9 :1 2 .
^ Mark, 10:21, 23, 24; Luke, 11:33, 34.
38
t h e more e x a g g e ra te d form o f M onachism .” ® Then, to o , from
th e v e ry s t a r t , C h r is t ia n s , in s te a d o f a tte m p tin g to t r a n s
form a l l s o c i e t y in acco rd an ce w ith th e s ta n d a rd s o f th e
G o sp els, formed th e m selv es in to groups more o r l e s s d i s t i n c t
from th e w orld about them in which th e s e sta n d a rd s co u ld be
o b se rv e d . As la r g e numbers came in to th e Church and th e
d e sc e n d a n ts o f c o n v e rts rem ained in i t , C h r is tia n s te n d ed to
fo rs a k e th e C h r is t ia n te a c h in g and to conform more and more
to th e s o c i a l o r d e r i n which th e y w ere s e t . A gainst t h i s
f a i l u r e to meet th e C h r is tia n s ta n d a rd came p r o t e s t s in th e
form o f e f f o r t s to o rg a n iz e com m unities which would l i v e
a c c o rd in g to th e p r e c e p ts o f Je s u s and th e A p o s tle s . Of
th e s e e f f o r t s th e M onastic movement was th e most w id e -sp re a d
and th e m ost p e r s i s t e n t . The very n a tu r e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y
and th e r e s u l t i n g te n s io n betw een i t s e t h i c a l s ta n d a rd s and
th o s e o f n o n - C h r is tia n s o c ie ty u n d o u b te d ly h e lp to e x p la in
th e o r i g i n and grow th of th e m o n astic movement. I n a d d itio n ,
th e w id e -sp re a d b e l i e f in th e antinom y between f l e s h and
s p i r i t and th e c o n c e p tio n o f s a l v a t i o n a s e sc a p e from th e
tram m els o f one in to th e realm s o f th e o th e r must a ls o be
reck o n ed w ith as a f a c t o r w hich d id much to engender a s c e t i c
p r a c t i c e s . The im portance o f t h i s view in th e developm ent
3
H e rb e rt B. Workman, "M o n a stic ism ," E n cy c lo p ed ia o f
The S o c ia l S c ie n c e s (New York: The M acm illan Company, 19307»
p . 585.
39
o f C h r i s t i a n M onasticism i s s e t f o r t h by Hannah who s a y s :
"To th e o r i e n t a l view t h a t m a tte r i s an e v i l th in g in i t s e l f
and t h a t o u r v i l e b o d ie s need to be subdued by a s c e tic is m ,
th e f i r s t o r i g i n s o f M onasticism must be r e f e r r e d . " ^ Al
though a s c e tic is m was p r a c t ic e d o u ts id e as w e ll as w ith in
th e C h r i s t i a n movement, i t was w ith in C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a t i t
had i t s most e x te n s iv e developm ent. T h e re fo re i t i s e v id e n t
t h a t in o rd e r to f u l l y e x p la in th e o r i g i n and grow th o f
m o n a stic ism , i t i s n e c e s s a ry to ta k e in to acco u n t b o th th e
C h r i s t i a n im pulse and th e n o n - C h r is tia n environm ent.
The m o n astic movement began to assume shape tow ard
th e end o f th e t h i r d c e n tu ry , and had i t s e a r l i e s t prom inent
c e n te r in E gypt. Anthony, th e most famous example o f
E g y p tia n m o n asticism , l i v e d i n th e l a t t e r h a l f o f th e t h i r d
and th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e f o u r t h c e n tu ry . As a young Copt
o f i n h e r i t e d w e a lth he was so p ro fo u n d ly s tr u c k by h e a rin g
th e p assag e in th e G ospel in w hich J e s u s commanded th e r i c h
young r u l e r to s e l l a l l and g iv e to th e p o o r t h a t he to o k
th e word a s ap p ly in g to h i m s e l f . A fte r f u l f i l l i n g i t he r e
t i r e d to th e d e s e r t . In th e West th e b e s t known e a r l y ex
pon en t was Jerom e, a man o f e d u c a tio n , and M a rtin o f T ours,
an e x - s o l d i e r . The immense c i r c u l a t i o n o f th e b io g ra p h ie s
^ Ia n C. Hannah, C h r is t ia n M onasticism (New York: The
M acm illan Company, 1925), p . 14.
40
o f Jerome and M a rtin o f Tours a t t e s t th e q u ic k p o p u la r it y o f
th e movement. The m o n a s te rie s a c h ie v e d prom inence in b o th
E a s t and West w ith th e monks l i v i n g e i t h e r in com m unities o r
as h e r m its .
B efore lo n g E a s t e r n m o n asticism assumed a more o r l e s s
perm anent p a t t e r n when i t ad o p ted th e Rule of S t . B a s il as
th e b a s is o f i t s governm ent. The R ule was c h a r a c te r iz e d by
se v e re d i s c i p l i n e and s e l f - m o r t i f i c a t i o n . I t was d e sig n e d
p r im a r il y to save th e in d iv id u a l th ro u g h extrem e a s c e t i c
p r a c t i c e s . Having w ithdraw n from s o c i e t y th e c h ie f concern
o f th e monk was h im s e lf . I t was n a t u r a l , th e r e f o r e , t h a t
E a s te rn m o n asticism because o f i t s em phasis upon w ith d raw al
from s o c ie ty and i t s alm o st e x c lu s iv e concern f o r th e i n d i
v id u a l sh o u ld p r e s e n t no program f o r s o c ia l b e tte r m e n t. I t
d id n o t even co n ceiv e th e re-m ak in g o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r on
C h r is t ia n l i n e s to be w ith in th e sco p e o f i t s a c t i v i t i e s .
M oreover, i t te n d ed to d i r e c t J e s u s ’ id e a l o f th e Kingdom o f
God as a d iv in e S o c ia l O rder in to th e narrow c o n fin e s o f th e
m o n astic i d e a l , hence away from th e v ery human s o c ie ty which
Je su s sought to redeem .
In th e W est, how ever, m o n a stic ism to o k a more p ra c
t i c a l tu r n , some o f th e monks even ta k in g t h e i r p la c e s as men
o f a f f a i r s . Though fu n d a m e n ta lly l i k e E a s te rn m o n a stic ism in
many of i t s f e a t u r e s , th e r e w ere i n W estern m o n asticism c e r
t a i n a c t i v i t i e s which h e lp e d to c r e a te and co n serv e h ig h ly
41
s i g n i f i o a n t s o c i a l c o n t r ib u t io n s th ro u g h th e u n c e r t a i n i t y o f
th e M iddle Ages. I n th e f i e l d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l p u r s u i t s , th e
work o f th e monks i s w e ll known. Through t h e i r u n t i r i n g
e f f o r t s th e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e o f a c i v i l i z a t i o n was saved
f o r su c c e e d in g g e n e r a tio n s . I n th e f i e l d o f a g r i c u l t u r e
t h e i r work i s a ls o n o ta b le . Not o n ly d id th e y p r e s e r v e
a c ro s s th e M iddle Ages Roman s c i e n t i f i c methods o f a g r i c u l
t u r e , c a t t l e b re e d in g and f r u i t r a i s i n g , b u t th e m o n a s te rie s
th em selv es became a g r i c u l t u r a l experim ent s t a t i o n s and model
farm s where rude p e a s a n ts , lo o k in g on, le a r n e d th e a r t s o f
a g r i c u l t u r e and h u sb an d ry . A ccording to Workman:
I n th e West th e B e n e d ic tin e m o n a s te rie s became th e
c e n te r s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n and o f e d u c a tio n , th e i n t e l l
e c tu a l s a v io u rs o f E u ro p e, th e a rk o f th e Lord in
which th e r e to o k re fu g e from th e f lo o d o f b a rb a rism ^
a l l t h a t was b e s t in th e l i f e and th o u g h t o f th e w o rld .
But in s p i t e o f i t s c o n tr ib u tio n s to c i v i l i z a t i o n
d u rin g th e M iddle Ages, m o n a stic ism d id l i t t l e to c a r r y out
th e s o c i a l im p lic a tio n s o f J e s u s ’ m essage. M onasticism d id
n o t endeavor to tra n s fo rm s o c i e t y . S e p a ra tio n from th e
w o rld , r a t h e r th a n re-m ak in g th e w orld seems to have been
th e i d e a l . P e rs o n a l s a l v a t i o n , r a t h e r th a n th e Kingdom o f
God on e a r t h was th e r u l i n g p a s s io n . Even th e c o n tr ib u tio n s
o f m o n a stic ism enum erated above, though th e y h e lp e d to p r e
s e rv e th e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e f o r su c c e e d in g g e n e ra tio n s , were
5
H e rb e rt B. Workman, The E v o lu tio n o f th e M onastic
I d e a l (London: H. G. K e lly Company, 1913), p . 153.
42
alm ost w h o lly a b y -p ro d u c t o f th e m o n a stic l i f e . They w ere
n o t th e r e s u l t o f a w e ll re a s o n e d d e te rm in a tio n to improve
s o c i e t y , t o p r e s e r v e c u l t u r e , o r , in d e ed , to do a n y th in g
t h a t l a t e r pro v ed to be o f such g r e a t b e n e f i t to s o c i e t y .
As Rauschenbusch sa y s: "They re n d e re d t h i s s o c i a l a id w ith
o u t any i n t e n t i o n to r e c o n s tr u c t th e community about them ."^
So i t may be s a id by way o f summary t h a t th e monas
t i c i s m o f t h i s e r a w ith a l l i t s good works d e f le c te d th e
powers t h a t m ight have h e lp e d to c r e a te a b e t t e r s o c i e t y .
E very m o n astery was a d e n ia l o f J e s u s ’ G ospel o f th e Kingdom,
f o r i t d e c la r e d th e w orld e v i l and in c a p a b le o f b e in g
C h r i s t i a n i z e d . The c h ie f la c k o f th e m o n astic i n s t i t u t i o n s
was t h e i r f a i l u r e to co n c eiv e th e Kingdom o f God a s a s o c i a l
o rd e r which i s d e s tin e d to em brace a l l p e o p le . I t was an
a tte m p t to save a few o u t o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r , r a t h e r th a n
to re-m ake th e s o c i a l o r d e r . I t had s o c i a l f e a t u r e s , b u t
th e y were m e rely th e f r i n g e o f th e f a b r i c t h a t was to be
re n o v a te d . The m o n astic i d e a l drew i t s d e v o te e s , in c lu d in g
th e most a rd e n t C h r is t ia n s , o u t o f norm al s o c ie ty in to commu
n i t i e s b u i l t upon what i t esteem ed C h r is t ia n p r i n c i p l e s . I t
th u s ab so rb ed th e mind o f th e Church and k e p t i t s a t t e n t i o n
o f f i t s o b l ig a tio n s to s o c i e t y . W ith in th e m o n a stic commu
n i t i e s th em selv es w ith t h e i r p r o p e r ty , e q u a l i t y , and good
^ W a lter R auschenbusch, C h r i s t i a n i t y and th e S o c ia l
C r i s i s (New York: George H. Doran Company, 1907), p . 1:78.
43
w orks, th e I d e a l o f th e Kingdom seemed to be r e a l i z e d . But
th e scope o f t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n was c o n fin e d to th e m o n astic
community; hence th e S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y o f th e e ra found
e x p re s s io n in a, vacuum.
The decay o f m o n a stic ism . The developm ent o f monas
tic is m fo llo w e d somewhat th e developm ent o f th e Church d u rin g
th e e a r l y p e r io d . I t was not lo n g b e fo re th e i n s t i t u t i o n
w hich had r i s e n a s a p r o t e s t a g a in s t th e w o rld in e s s o f th e
Church began i t s e l f to ta k e on th e w o rld in e s s o f th e i n s t i
t u t i o n from which i t had f l e d . A lthough ren o u n cin g th e
w o rld , m o n a stic ism became abso rb ed in w o rld ly a f f a i r s . The
in d u s tr io u s n e s s o f th e monks bore f r u i t and e re lo n g th e
m o n astic i n s t i t u t i o n s enjoyed th e d i g n i t y o f w e a lth and power
accompanying g r e a t p o s s e s s io n s . In th e m o n a stery , a s in th e
Church, i t was th e g r e a t w e a lth accu m u lated th ro u g h th e cen
t u r i e s t h a t le d to i t s d ecay .
In th e te n t h , e le v e n th , and t w e l f th c e n t u r i e s , a t
tem pts were made to refo rm th e m o n a s te rie s by th e e s t a b l i s h
ment o f new o rd e rs and a r e v i v a l of s t r i c t o b ed ien ce to th e
m o n a stic vow. But in tim e th e re fo rm movement them selves
went th ro u g h a p e r io d o f g ra d u a l r e l a x a t i o n , c o r r u p tio n , and
decay .
O u tsid e th e c l o i s t e r th e common p e o p le w ere in d es
p e r a t e need, but m o n a stic ism f a i l e d to re sp o n d . I t had n e v e r
g ra sp e d th e f u l l im port o f J e s u s ’ m essage, e s p e c i a l l y i t s
44
s o c i a l im p lic a tio n s and m is s io n . The tra g e d y of m o n a stic ism
was t h a t i t d id n o t re c o g n iz e how f a r i t was d r i f t i n g behind
i t s own tim e s . Even th e l a t e r B e n e d ic tin e s f a i l e d to r e a l i z e
th a t th e d i r e c t im i ta t io n o f C h r is t must n e c e s s a r i l y in v o lv e
moving and w orking among th e unredeem ed m u ltitu d e .
In th e c lo s in g c e n tu r ie s o f th e M iddle Ages th e mon
a s t e r y , a s w e ll as th e Church p ro p e r, was f a i l i n g to meet
th e needs of th e tim e s . S o c ia l c o n d itio n s in many a re a s were
d e p lo ra b le . Yet n e i t h e r form o f o rg a n iz e d C h r i s t i a n i t y
seemed even to c o n s id e r s e r i o u s l y th e problem o f i t s s o c i a l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The v ery d e s p e r a te n e s s o f th e s i t u a t i o n ,
how ever, seemed to s e t th e s ta g e f o r a.new b i r t h , even though
in a d e q u a te and s h o r t - l i v e d , o f Jesus* Kingdom I d e a l . The
b i r t h was to come, n o t from o rg a n iz e d C h r i s t i a n i t y , but in a
spontaneous e f f o r t on th e p a r t o f la y C h r is t ia n s , who came
to be known as F r i a r s , to a p p ly th e s o c i a l p r i n c i p l e s o f
J e s u s .
CHAPTER VI
THE COMING OF THE FRIARS
One o f th e most s i g n i f i o a n t e v e n ts o f th e M iddle Ages
was th e s tr u g g le o f C hristendom a g a in s t th e r i s i n g t i d e o f
Mohammedanism, known a s th e C ru sa d e s. T h e ir in flu e n c e upon
th e l a t e r developm ents in European h i s t o r y was g r e a t .
Through th e e x te n s iv e com m unication w ith l i t t l e known la n d s
which r e s u l t e d from th e n , a rem a rk a b le change was w rought.
They had th e e f f e c t o f aw akening a s le e p in g c o n tin e n t, and a
new co n fid e n c e in th e f u t u r e began to show i t s e l f . There
was a new s e l f - r e l i a n c e , a s w e ll as a new r e l i g i o u s awaken
in g , The e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e new m o n astic o rd e rs which has
a lr e a d y been d is c u s s e d was an o u tg ro w th o f t h i s awakened r e
l i g i o u s z e a l .
Bold le a d e r s began more f e a r l e s s l y th a n e v e r to de
nounce th e s in s o f th e C hurch, Y et, as we have se en , b o th
th e Church and m o n astery have f a i l e d to re a c h th e m asses.
I t was i n e v i t a b l e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t when new re fo rm movements
a r o s e th e y sh o u ld be em in e n tly l a i c and sh o u ld be o rg a n iz e d
in d e p e n d e n tly o f th e C hurch.
The s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s . So a d e q u a te ly does M iss
D avison s e t f o r t h th e p r e v a i l i n g c o n d itio n s when th e F r i a r s
made t h e i r a p p e a ra n c e , t h a t l i b e r t y w i l l be ta k e n to quote
46
h e r a t le n g th :
There was a c o n s ta n tly in c r e a s in g r e c o g n itio n o f
s o c i a l e v i l s c ry in g f o r rem edy. C o n f r a t e r n i t i e s and
h o s p i t a l s e s ta b li s h e d by th e ch u rch were doing t h e i r
b e s t i t i s t r u e , but th e y made l i t t l e headway a g a in s t
th e m is e ry and d is e a s e i n crowded tow ns; in d is c r im
i n a t e c h a r i t y se rv e d th e n as now m e rely to encourage
id le n e s s ; th e in c r e a s e o f p r o s p e r i t y among th e mer
c a n t i l e c l a s s bro u g h t in to s tr o n g e r r e l i e f th e woes
o f th e u n c o n sid e re d low er s t r a t a ; alw ays th e w o rst
s u f f e r e r s in th e age o f t r a n s i t i o n , M o m stic ism no
lo n g e r responded to th e needs and a s p i r a t i o n s o f th e
tim e s . The e v e r - in c r e a s in g w e a lth o f th e e s t a b l i s h e d
o r d e rs gave r i s e to c o n tin u a l i n t e s t i n e d is c o rd s ; en
vio u s eyes o f th e l a i t y w ere c a s t on t h e i r p o s s e s s io n s
and, lo s i n g t h e i r a s c e tic is m , th e y became an incubus
on th e c h u rc h . The r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e w id esp re ad in
d if f e r e n c e of th e c le r g y and o f t h e i r g e n e ra l incom
p e te n c e was fu n d a m e n ta lly a l t e r i n g th e a t t i t u d e o f th e
more th o u g h tf u l laym en, who g r a d u a lly began to a c c e p t
th e id e a t h a t th e o n ly s a lv a tio n f o r C hristendom as
f o r th e church l a y i n a r e t u r n to a p o s to lic p o v e r t y *
To u n d e rsta n d th e work o f th e F r i a r s , as th e t r a v e l i n g
laym en were c a l l e d , i t i s w e ll to b e a r in mind th e c o n d itio n s
i n th e tow ns. As in o u r own day c i t i e s under th e im pulse o f
modern i n d u s t r i a l and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n d itio n s have grown
so f a s t t h a t a c u te economic and s o c i a l problem s have a r i s e n
in them, so in th e tw e lf th and t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , th e
towns grew r a p i d l y and w ith o u t i n t e l l i g e n t d i r e c t i o n . The
s t r e e t s were n arro w , and noisom e, th e h o u sin g c o n d itio n s
d e p lo r a b le , w h ile w id e -sp re a d v ic e and p o v e rty were o f te n
a g g ra v a te d th e n a s now by s ic k n e s s and unemployment. T h is
^ E lle n S c o tt D avison, F o re ru n n e rs o f S t , F ra n c is
(B oston: Houghton M i f f l i n Company, 19S7J, p . 1 6 9 f,
47
I s s t r i k i n g l y p ic t u r e d by Je sso p p , who sa y s:
The sedim ent o f th e town p o p u la tio n in th e M iddle
Ages was a dense slough o f s ta g n a n t m ise ry , s q u a lo r,
fam ine, loathsom e d is e a s e , and d u l l d e s p a ir , such a s
th e w o rst slums o f London, P a r i s , o r L iv e rp o o l know
n o th in g o f . . , The e v e r I n c r e a s in g th ro n g s o f
b e g g a rs , o u tla w s, and r u f f i a n runaways were sim p ly
l e f t to s h i f t f o r th e m se lv e s. The c i v i l a u t h o r i t i e s
to o k no acco u n t o f them as lo n g as th e y q u i e t l y r o t t e d
and d ie d ; and, what was s t i l l more d r e a d f u l, th e whole
m achinery o f th e ch u rch p o l i t y had been form ed and was
a d a p te d to d e a l w ith e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t c o n d itio n s o f
s o c ie ty from th o se which had now a r i s e n . , , , ThSg
monk was n o th in g and d id n o th in g f o r th e townsman.
To meet th e s e c o n d itio n s , th e r e a ro s e a le a d e r who
was d e s tin e d to r e k in d le two v e ry s i g n i f i c a n t y e t dying
embers on th e a l t a r of C h r i s t i a n i t y . T his was S t . F r a n c is .
By h i s s a i n t l y l i f e , he r e k in d le d th e s p i r i t u a l flam e and
added new f u e l to th e f l i c k e r i n g to r c h o f S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y .
A co m b in atio n o f c irc u m sta n c e s had caused S t . F ra n c is
to renounce a l l w o rld ly goods and to ta k e un to h im s e lf Lady
P o v e rty as h i s b r id e . U n lik e th e monks, how ever, he had no
i n t e n t i o n to sh u t h im s e lf o f f from th e w o rld . On th e o th e r
hand h is g r e a t e s t work was to be among th e low er c l a s s e s and
o u tc a s ts o f s o c i e t y . H is l i f e was a p r o t e s t and a t th e same
tim e a l i f e o f lo v in g s e r v i c e .
He p r o t e s t e d because th e Church had become ab so rb ed
in th e w o rld ly a f f a i r s of S ta te and t h e i r accom panying e v i l s
and lu x u ry ; he p r o t e s t e d a g a in s t th e enslavem ent to tem p o ral
E
A ugustus Je sso p p , The Coming o f th e F r i a r s (London:
F is h e r Unwin Company, 1 906), p . 6.
48
tilin g s , and t h e pagan c ra v in g s f o r h o n o rs and w e a lth .
S e t t i n g an example f o r h i s f o llo w e r s , S t. F ra n c is went o u t
to m in i s te r and g iv e a id to th e lo w est c l a s s e s . He, to o ,
had come "To p re a c h th e g o s p e l to th e p o o r, . . . to h e a l
th e b ro k e n h e a rte d , . . . to s e t a t l i b e r t y them t h a t a re
b r u is e d ." P erh ap s none o t h e r h as e v e r fo llo w e d so c l o s e ly
in th e f o o t s t e p s o f h i s M a s te r. M iss D avison^ say s th a t he
p la c e d th e r e c o g n i tio n o f th e needs o f th e u n f o r tu n a te as
th e supreme d u ty o f th e C hurch.
The F r i a r s a ro s e a t a tim e when th e r e l i g i o u s l i f e
o f th e m asses was being s a d ly n e g le c te d . The Church was
l i t t l e o r n o t a t a l l concerned about th e m a tte r , b u t i t i s
g r e a t l y to t h e i r c r e d i t t h a t th e F r i a r s w ere. B u tle r ^ t e l l s
us t h a t when th e F r i a r s came and e s t a b l i s h e d th em selv es in
th e p o o re s t l o c a l i t i e s o f th e towns and bro u g h t r e l i g i o n to
th e o u tc a s ts o f s o c ie ty , ta k in g upon th em selv es th e c o n d i
t i o n s o f l i f e o f th o se among whom th e y w orked, th e y s u p p lie d
a need w ith which th e c le r g y of th e day co u ld not co p e. The
F r i a r s responded not o n ly to th e needs o r th e ag e, b u t to
i t s new id e a s — r e l i g i o u s , i n t e l l e c t u a l , s o c i a l , a r t i s t i c .
But th e F r i a r s d id more th a n sim p ly b r in g r e l i g i o n
s
D avison, op; c i t . . p . E83.
^ E. G. B u tle r , "M endicant O rd e rs ," In c y c lo u e d ia
B r i t a n n i c a . 1 4 th E d itio n , V ol. 15 (New York: The E n cy clo p ed ia
B r i t t a n i c a Company, I n c o r p o ra te d , 19S9), p . S45.
49
to th e s e n e g le c te d g ro u p s. They made r e l i g i o n a f u n c tio n o f
l i f e in s te a d o f k eep in g i t , l i k e m o n a stic ism , c o n s ta n tly a t
v a r ia n c e w ith l i f e . ^ As S te a d w r i t e s :
T h e ir c h a r i t i e s which c a r r i e d su c c o r to th e lo w est
and most w retch ed and d e s p is e d members o f th e comm
u n ity w ere a new a s s e r t i o n o f th e o ld f a i t h th a t th e
mere human b e in g a s human is o f i n f i n i t e w orth in
th e s ig h t o f God, T his f r e s h c o n ta c t w ith th e common
p e o p le l a r g e s t in number and lo w est in g ra d e produced
now, as e v e r, a b e n e f ic e n t r e a c tio n on th e whole o f
s o c ie ty .®
S t. F r a n c is had r e c a p tu r e d a v e ry b a s ic elem ent in
th e G ospel o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , and th e su b seq u en t e f f e c t upon
th e s o c i a l o rd e r was alm ost r e v o l u t i o n a r y .
I n th e g r e a t r e v i v a l u sh e re d in by S t. F r a n c is o f
A s s i s i , no r e l i g i o u s l i f e seemed com plete w hich d id n o t de
v o te i t s e l f to th e c a re o f th e o u tc a s t o r le p e r o r g iv e o f
i t s su b sta n c e to th e r e l i e f of th e s ic k and th e aged. When
he founded th e T e r t i a r i e s o r T h ird O rd e rs, S t . F ra n c is
w idened th e scope o f h i s work and claim ed th e a l le g i a n c e o f
th e l a i t y a s w e ll . The fo u n d a tio n o f t h i s O rd er, soon im
i t a t e d by a l l th e o th e r M endicant O rd ers, was l i t e r a l l y th e
b eg in n in g o f a s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n . F or c e n tu r ie s th e l a i t y
had had l i t t l e a c tiv e p a r t in th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e C hurch.
K
Edward M. Hulme, The R e n a issa n c e and R efo rm atio n
(New York: The C en tu ry Company, 1936), p . 153.
^ F ra n c is H e rb e rt S te a d , The S to ry o f S o c ia l
C h r i s t i a n i t y . Vol. I , (New York: George H. Doran Company,
1984), p. 206.
50
How Europe was f i l l e d w ith a h o s t o f e a r n e s t laym en, bound
to g e th e r in s o c i a l s e r v ic e and church work.
W e have n o te d p r e v io u s ly t h a t up to t h i s tim e th e r e
had been n o th in g in th e h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a t co u ld
be c a l l e d a p o s i t i v e movement in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s o c i a l
a m e lio ra tio n , b u t h e re we have an exam ple:
I t was n o t u n t i l th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry when th e new
o rd e rs o f F r i a r s r e a c te d a g a in s t th e B e n e d ic tin e i d e a l ,
which had p r e v io u s ly dom inated w e ste rn m o n a stic ism ,
t h a t a c t i v e s e r v ic e in la y s o c i e t y became a param ount
o b je c t o f th e r e l i g i o u s l i f e . ?
But th e in f lu e n c e o f th e F r i a r s i n th e f i e l d o f le a r n in g
was a ls o c o n s id e r a b le , a s i s a t t e s t e d by L i t t l e , ^ who sa y s
t h a t th e r e fo llo w ed a period, o f about a c e n tu ry in w hich
th e M endicant f r i a r s s u p p lie d Europe w ith most o f i t s le a d e r s
o f th o u g h t and l e a r n i n g .
The F r i a r s a ro s e to meet th e needs o f a d ecay in g
m o n a stic i n s t i t u t i o n and a d ecay in g C hurch. The r e v i v a l i s
one o f th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t e x p re s s io n s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y
d u rin g th e t h i r t e e n t h and f o u r te e n th c e n t u r i e s . But th e
M endicant O rders fo llo w e d th e M onastic O rders a lo n g th e ro ad
to d ecay . W ish art w r ite s t h a t a f t e r th e y had e le v a te d
r j
A lfre d B e r t h o le t , " R e lig io u s O rd e rs ," E n cy c lo p ed ia
o f th e S o c ia l S c ie n c e s . V ol. 13 (New Y ork; The M acm illan
Company, 1930), p . 278.
8
A. G. L i t t l e , Cambrid&e M edieval H i s t o r y . V ol. VI,
H. M. Gwatkin, e d i t o r (New York: The M acm illan Company, 1911),
p . 741.
5 i
m o n a stic ism to th e z e n ith o f i t s power, th e M endicant O rders
l i k e a l l th e o th e r m o n a stic b ro th e rh o o d s, e n te r e d upon th e 4 r
sham eful d e c lin e .^
When th e d e c lin e came, th e work o f th e F r i a r s had
s c a r c e ly g o tte n w e ll u n d er way, and th e movement which
s t a r t e d out w ith such prom ise had ended in f a i l u r e , so f a r
a t l e a s t , as i t s w id e r in f lu e n c e was co n c e rn e d . "W ithin a
c e n tu ry a f t e r th e fo u n d in g o f th e F ra n c is c a n O rder i t be
came a d is g r a c e .
A lthough f a r more s u c c e s s f u l in th e work o f S o c ia l
C h r i s t i a n i t y th a n any o f th e re fo rm in g m o n a stic o r d e r s , th e
F r i a r s sim p ly marked a n o th e r f a i l u r e i n th e lo n g l i n e o f
a tte m p ts to re fo rm a r a p i d l y d e c lin in g C hurch. But th e
F r i a r s d id succeed f o r a tim e in s a t i s f y i n g th e lo n g in g s of
th e towns f o r s p i r i t u a l n o u rish m e n t. Even th e Church, i t
s e l f , was n o t unaware o f th e power in h e r e n t in th e movement,
and s e e in g a l a s t chance to r e g a in i t s lo n g l o s t s p i r i t u a l
power i t gave i t s f u l l su p p o rt to th e F r a n c is c a n s , b u t in
v a in , Hulme w r i t e s :
I
The e x tr a o r d in a r y p r i v i l e g e s c o n fe rre d upon them
m arks th e l a s t im p o rta n t a tte m p t o f th e papacy to
re c o v e r som ething o f th e m o ral and r e l i g i o u s
^ A lfre d W. W ish a rt, A S h o rt H is to r y o f Monks and
M o n a ste rie s (T ren to n , Hew J e r s e y : A lfre d Brand and Company,
1900), p . 256.
Hulme, l o c . c i t .
52
a u t h o r i t y which i t had l o s t in a c q u ir in g by w o rld ly
means i t s trem endous j u r i s t i c and p o l i t i c a l power
I b i d . . p . 154.
CHAPTER VII
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH A N D SOCIAL CHRISTIANITY
In th e fo re g o in g d is c u s s io n o f m o n a stic ism and th e
M endicant O rd e rs, th e q u e s tio n o f th e Church p r o p e r , m eaning
th e Church e x c lu s iv e o f th e M onastic and M endicant O rd e rs,
and i t s work in th e f i e l d o f s o c i a l C h r i s t i a n i t y d u rin g th e
M iddle Ages has n o t been to u ch ed upon. Yet th e r e a re a
number o f o u ts ta n d in g s e r v ic e s t h a t th e Church re n d e re d in
s p i t e o f th e dom inating co n cern f o r w o rld ly a f f a i r s . Not
th e l e a s t o f th e s e was th e c r e a tio n d u rin g th e M edieval
p e r io d o f th e sen se o f s o l i d a r i t y ,
There was a grow ing te n d e n c y a l l d u rin g th e M iddle
Ages f o r th e i n d iv i d u a l to be submerged in g r e a t i n s t i t u
t i o n s . T h is was what gave s t r e n g t h to fe u d a lis m , m o n a stic ism
and th e C hurch. A ll w ere a means tow ard th e u n i t y o f mankind.
A ll p eo p le in M edieval Europe were u n ite d u n d er th e one ec
c l e s i a s t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n w ith th e Pope at th e h ea d . I t was
a s p i r i t u a l u n i t y p r im a r il y , y e t a t tim e s p r a c t i c a l l y a p o l
i t i c a l u n i t y as w e l l . H ask in s^ says t h a t th e Church was th e
c h i e f so u rc e o f u n i t y f o r m ed iev al s o c i e t y i s a commonplace
w hich i s n o t open to d is p u te .
^ C h a rle s Homer H a sk in s, S tu d ie s i n M edieval C u ltu re
(O xford: The C larendon P r e s s , 1989), p . 94.
54
T his was th e most im p o rta n t s e r v ic e o f th e Church to
s o c i e t y d u rin g th e M iddle A ges. I t was a b le to m a in ta in a
se n se o f s o l i d a r i t y a t a tim e when th e r e was no o th e r power
co u ld do s o .
The M edieval chu rch , by i t s u n if o rm ity , i t s d i s c i p l i n e ,
and i t s c o r p o ra te m oulding power, d id a work f o r th e
crude s o c i a l l i f e t h a t grew upon th e r u in s o f th e Roman
Empire o r among th e new p e o p le s o u ts id e th e bounds to
which th e Roman con q u est had once ex ten d ed t h a t no
f r e e r c o n c e p tio n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y co u ld have ac co m p lish ed ,^
The s e r v ic e o f th e Church in s e c u r in g s o c i a l u n i t y i s
a ls o in d ic a t e d by H a g le r,^ He says t h a t m e d iev alism sto o d
f o r th e i d e a l o f one human fa m ily in a way t h a t h a s n o t been
d u p lic a te d s in c e , w ith God?s v ic a r as i t s e a r t h l y head and
f a t h e r . T h is c o n s c io u sn e ss of s o l i d a r i t y was o f immense
s o c i a l as w e ll as s p i r i t u a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t to o k th e d i s
i n t e g r a t e d u n i t s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n t h a t s u rv iv e d th e b a r b a r ia n
in v a s io n s and b u i l t them up in to a new ord er#
Nor had c h u rc h ly C h r i s t i a n i t y , d u rin g i t s im p e ria l
p e r io d , ev e r e n t i r e l y l o s t s ig h t o f th e h u m a n ita ria n im pulse
t h a t i s so d e e p ly imbedded in th e te a c h in g o f J e s u s . A tkins
in p r e s e n tin g some o f th e s o c i a l c o n t r ib u t io n s o f th e Church
d u rin g th e M iddle Ages say s t h a t i t r e c a s t p r i v a t e m o ra ls .
^ W i llis to n W alker, The R efo rm atio n (New York: C h a rle s
S c r i b n e r ’s Sons, 1910), p . 5 .
^ A rth u r W , N a g le r, The Church in H is to r y (New York:
The Abingdon P r e s s , 1929), p . 113.
55
e s p e c i a l l y in th e r e g io n o f se x r e l a t i o n s h i p . I t made
m a rria g e a sacram ent and gave new q u a l i t y to th e fa m ily
l i f e . I t ended g l a d i a t o r i a l shows* I t h e lp e d humanize th e
l a t e r l e g i s l a t i o n o f th e Roman E m pire. I t threw i t s f o r c e s
a g a in s t s la v e r y , alth o u g h th e Church was slow in f r e e in g i t s
own s e r f s . I t d isc o u ra g e d th e e n d le s s p e t t y f i g h t i n g in th e
M iddle Ages."^ The c i v i l i z i n g work o f th e Church d u rin g th e
M iddle Ages i s w e ll summarized by Workman:
In any su rv ey o f th e c i v i l i z i n g work o f th e m ed iev al
church we may c la im th e v a lu e a s s ig n e d to human l i f e
a s th e r e s u l t o f th e d o c tr in e o f th e s a n c t i t y o f
e v e ry im m ortal s o u l; th e m i t i g a t i o n o f th e h o r r o r s
o f w ar; th e im pulse g iv e n to th e m anum ission o f s la v e s
and s e r f s . The m e d iev al church p ro v id e d th e one power
th a t co u ld s u c c e s s f u l l y oppose th e r e ig n o f f o r c e ,
th a t c o u ld uphold and m a in ta in d i s c i p l i n e o v er th e
p a s s io n s o f th e g r e a t e s t . To th e church a ls o we owe
th e fo rm a tio n o f a l o f t i e r id e a l o f womanhood, th e
b e g in n in g s of e d u c a tio n , th e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f a r t , th e
n o b le s t achievem ents of a r c h i t e c t u r e . . . . Again in
th e coming o f th e F r i a r s , to a l e s s e r e x te n t a ls o in
th e e a r l i e r m o n a stic movement, we n o te th e most
s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t e v e r made tow ard c o n s tr u c tiv e
s o c ia lis m . . . . L a s tly , none may deny th e s u p e r-
abounding c h a r i t y o f th e c h u rc h . H arm ful as may have
been th e e x tra v a g a n c ie s o f t h i s c h a r i t y , none can deny,
in th e absence o f w is e r and more o rg a n iz e d e f f o r t s to
d e a l w ith p o v e r ty , th a t i t was th e c h a r i t y o f th e
church a lo n e t h a t saved th e p o o re s t from th e g r in d in g
ty ra n n y o f th e p o w erfu l and w e a lth y .^
But as th e g ra d u a l grow th o f th e g r e a t e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
^ Gaius G. A tk in s , The P ro c e s s io n o f th e Gods (New
York: R. R . Sm ith, I n c o r p o ra te d , 1 9 3 0 ), p . 527.
^ H e rb e rt B. Workman, The F o u n d a tio n o f Modern
R e lig io n (London: H. G. K e lly , 1916), p . 143.
56
o r g a n iz a tio n b ro u g h t power and w e a lth to th e Church, th e r e
a ro s e between th e papacy and th e H oly Homan Empire a s t r u g g l e
f o r suprem acy which consumed th e g r e a t e r p o r tio n o f th e
C hurch’s e n e rg ie s d u rin g m ost o f th e M iddle Ages. The papacy
was one o f th e dom inating in f lu e n c e s o f th e p e r io d , and, as
would be e x p e c te d , th e a d m in is t r a tio n o f th e enormous e c c le
s i a s t i c a l machine which was r e a l l y th e so u rce of i t s power
came to be one o f th e param ount co n cern s o f th e p ap a cy . One
o f th e two g r e a t emphases o f C h r i s t i a n i t y d u rin g th e M iddle
Ages can be summed up in th e papacy and th e a d m in is tr a tio n
o f e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n , th e o th e r was m o n a stic ism .
A tk in s^ say s th a t in g e n e r a l th e p rim a ry concern o f th e
Church was in th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e enormous s a c r e d o ta l
system i t had d e v e lo p e d . The le s s e n e d s o c i a l in flu e n c e r e
s u l t i n g from a b s o rp tio n in an e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n i s
brought o u t by HaUschenbusch? in th e sta te m e n t th a t when
C h r i s t i a n i t y was embodied in an a l l - a b s o r b i n g and a l l -
d o m in atin g e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n , i t s s o c i a l e f f e c t i v e
n e s s was c r ip p le d . Nor was i t s e t h i c a l in f lu e n c e n e a r ly so
g r e a t . I t s f r a t e r n a l h e lp f u ln e s s was l a r g e l y ab so rb ed by
th e c l e r i c a l m achine. I t s e n e rg ie s w ere sp e n t l a r g e l y in
Ô
A tk in s , op. c i t , , p . 528.
? W a lter R auschenbusch, C h r i s t i a n i t y and th e S o c ia l
C r i s i s (New York: George H. Doran Company, 1907), p . 185.
57
s tr e n g th e n in g i t s own o r g a n iz a tio n . I t e x e rte d i t s i n f l u
ence on th e S ta te n o t so much a s a s e r v a n t, b u t r a t h e r in
o rd e r to se c u re b e n e f i t s f o r i t s e l f . By sw allow ing up a l l
r e l i g i o u s l i f e i n a s e l f i s h e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n , i t
l e f t th e common l i f e unhallow ed and u n re v e re d .
The a t t i t u d e and p r a c t i c e o f the Church in r e l a t i o n to
th e s o c i a l m essage o f C h r i s t i a n i t y are w e ll i l l u s t r a t e d in
th e a t t i t u d e o f one o f i t s g r e a t e s t popes; and b ec au se o f th e
f # G t t h a t th e Popes were th e l e a d e r s and p o lic y -m a k e rs o f
th e C hurch, th e y w ere a b le in a se n se to d i r e c t th e c o u rse
alo n g which C h r i s t i a n i t y was to p ro c e e d . Where th e y le d th e
Church fo llo w e d . W ith Pope In n o cen t I I I , the. power o f th e
papacy re a c h e d i t s z e n ith . He was a man o f abundant s tr e n g t h
and a b i l i t y , and a tte m p te d in some m easure to improve th e
c o n d itio n s o f Rome. Says McCabe:
He o rg a n iz e d t h e work o f c h a r i t y in th e c i t y and d id
som ething to prom ote i t s commerce. He b u i l t a found
l i n g h o s p i t a l t r u s t i n g to re d u c e th e i n f a n t i c i d e which
he found so common a t Rome, th e p a la c e b e s id e s S t.
P e te r s he e n la rg e d and f o r t i f i e d , and he sp e n t la r g e
sums in ad o rn in g o th e r ch u rch es and enhancing th e
sp le n d o u r o f th e w o rsh ip . But th e s e and th e o th e r
refo rm s I have m entioned a re th e m e r e .in c id e n ts o f
h i s dom estic l i f e , so to sa y ; h is work was th e r u l i n g
o f th e w orld.®
P o s s ib ly no Pope was concern ed w ith r u l i n g th e w orld q u ite
so much a s In n o c e n t w as, but th e e x te n t o f h is i n t e r e s t in
^ Jo sep h McCabe, C r is e s in th e H is to r y o f th e Papacy
(New York: G. P . Putnam ’s Sons, 1916), p . 178.
58
w o rld ly a f f a i r s as com pared to th e w o rld ly i n t e r e s t o f th e
papacy in g e n e ra l was m e re ly a m a tte r o f d e g re e ; S o c ia l
C h r i s t i a n i t y had n o t y e t re a c h e d th e b lo sso m in g s ta g e b u t
c o n tin u e d to be a b so rb e d in w o rld ly a f f a i r s .
CHAPTER V III
THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION
Most h i s t o r i a n s r e a l i z e th e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f s e t t i n g
o f f h i s t o r y in a r b i t r a r y p e r io d s , b ecau se h i s t o r y i s a con
tin u o u s developm ent and p e r io d m erges in to p e rio d so im per
c e p t i b l y t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t to mark th e c lo s e o f one and
th e b e g in n in g o f a n o th e r .
The movement known as th e R e n a issa n c e w hich d i r e c t l y
p re c e d e d th e R e fo rm a tio n had w ith in i t c e r t a i n in f lu e n c e s
t h a t d e f i n i t e l y s e t th e s ta g e f o r th e R e fo rm atio n i t s e l f , f o r
exam ple, th e p la c e o f th e in d iv i d u a l in r e l i g i o u s , economic,
and p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s d u rin g th e R eform ation looms l a r g e .
But as Hulme w r i t e s , ^ t h i s f a c t o r was a lr e a d y p o w e rfu l d u rin g
th e R e n a is s a n c e . He say s t h a t th e deep u n d e rly in g cau se o f
th e R e n a issa n c e was th e r e v i v a l of th e in d i v i d u a l . So c lo s e
i s th e r e l a t i o n o f th e s e two p e r io d s , t h a t in t h i s d is c u s s io n
th e y w i l l be t r e a t e d as one p e r io d .
The s o c i a l a s p e c ts o f th e R e n a issa n c e and R e fo rm a tio n .
I t would be im p o ssib le h e re to d w e ll upon a l l th e f o r c e s t h a t
combined to b r in g on th e R e n a issa n c e and R e fo rm a tio n , but th e
s o c i a l c o n d itio n s o f th e tim e a r e o f im p o rta n c e . I n th e
^ Edward M. Hulme, The R e n a issa n c e and R efo rm atio n
(New York: The C en tu ry Company, 1926), p . 61,
60
c e n t u r i e s p re c e d in g th e R e fo rm a tio n , th e c o n d itio n s o f th e
s o c i a l o rd e r w ere f a r from s a t i s f a c t o r y . E s p e c ia l ly was
t h i s t r u e among th e m iddle and low er c l a s s e s . With th e
grow th o f commerce and in d u s t r y , came th e r a p i d growth of
tow ns. W ith th e d o w n fa ll of fe u d a lis m th e r e came to th e
m asses a v is i o n o f freedom from th e bondage o f serfdom , and
w ith th e r e v i v a l o f t h e in d iv i d u a l th e r e a r o s e an e v e r-
in c r e a s in g s e t of c o m p la in ts nnd demands d i r e c t e d a t th e
O v e r-lo rd s who had commanded th e a l le g ia n c e and su b m issio n
o f th e lo w er c l a s s e s f o r c e n t u r i e s . T here was a ls o a grow ing
d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e Church which was d o in g i t s p a r t in
p a u p e riz in g th e a lr e a d y p o v e r ty - s tr ic k e n p e a s a n t s . The papacy
was r a p i d l y lo s i n g power, w h ile th e r e were w id e -sp re a d com
p l a i n t s a t th e a b s o rp tio n o f th e Church in w o rld ly m a tte r s .
There were s t i l l a few who s i n c e r e l y sought to a t t a i n th e
j
h ig h e s t s p i r i t u a l l i f e , b u t t h e i r number was sm a ll and t h e i r
in f lu e n c e n e g l i g i b l e .
There was m oreover a grow ing d is c o n te n t w ith th e
w e a lth and w o rld ly a c t i v i t y o f the C hurch. , The d is c o n te n t
had ta k e n form to such a d e g re e t h a t ominous t h r e a t s a g a in s t
th e c a p ta in s o f i n d u s t r y , th e p r in c e s , and th e p r e l a t e s , who
were h e ld r e s p o n s ib le r e s p e c t i v e l y f o r th e econom ic, p o l i t
i c a l , and e c c l e s i a s t i c a l e v i l s o f th e tim e , grew e v e r more
f r e q u e n t. The burden o f th e p o p u la r p o e tr y a t th e end o f
th e f o u r te e n th c e n tu ry was to th e e f f e c t t h a t i t was tim e f o r
61
th e opmmoii p e o p le to da som ething about t h e i r unhappy l o t .
The o p p re s s iv e t a x a ti o n o f th e Church a ls o cau sed no
l i t t l e r ig h te o u s in d ig n a tio n among th e lo w er c l a s s e s . The
c o s t o f ru n n in g an o r g a n iz a tio n a s e x te n s iv e as th e C a th o lic
Church had become by th e b eg in n in g o f th e p e r io d u n d er con
s i d e r a t i o n was enorm ous. But th e w o rst f a c t about i t was
t h a t th e trem endous burden had to be borne by th e m asses who
were a lre a d y o p p re sse d beyond e n d u ra n c e . Then, to o , many
q u e s tio n a b le m ethods w ere used to r a i s e th e s e fu n d s . A s to
th e methods o f r a i s i n g money n e c e s s a ry f o r t h i s e la b o r a te
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m In g e^ rem arks t h a t th e Church had to r e s o r t
to b a re fa c e d t h r e a t s and p ro m ise s, to sham eless fra u d s and
p re te n d e d m ir a c le s , to c o r r u p t i n t r i g u e s w ith s e c u la r pow ers,
to th e c r u e l t i e s o f th e I n q u i s i t i o n w hich, he s a y s , was even
more an x io u s to c o n f is c a te p r o p e r ty th a n to burn h e r e t i c s ,
to th e s a l e o f in d u lg e n c e s , and to o th e r methods o f d e c e it
and e x t o r t i o n . N ag le r^ a ls o p o in ts to th e e x c e s s iv e f in a n
c i a l burdens imposed by th e Church upon th e p eo p le by means
o f t i t h e s , a n n a te s , P e t e r ’s pence, s p e c ia l l e v i e s , f e e s , and
ta x e s , a v a s t amount was squeezed out o f th e p o v e rty o f
E urope. S ch ap iro g iv e s a d d i t i o n a l e v id en ce o f o p p re s s iv e
^ W. R. In g e , C h r is t ia n E th ic s and Modern S o c ia l
Problem s (Hew York: G. P . Putnam ’ s 3ons, 1930), p . 170.
^ A rth u r W. H a g le r, The Church in H is to r y (Hew York:
The Abingdon P r e s s , 1929), p . 119.
62
l e v i e s by sa y in g t h a t :
The church to o k h e r s h a re o f th e p e a s a n t ’s h a r v e s t .
T here were th r e e t i t h e s , each about 10 p e r c e n t, pay
a b le y e a r ly , one was c a l l e d th e " g r e a t t i t h e " on c o rn ,
ry e , o a t s , w heat and w ine; a n o th e r c a l l e d th e " s m a ll
t i t h e " on f r u i t s and v e g e ta b le s ; and a t h i r d c a lle d
" f l e s h t i t h e " on dom estic a n im a ls . Every e v e n t in th e
l i f e of th e p e a sa n t was made th e o c c a sio n f o r new d u es,
and th e more g rie v o u s th e e v e n t th e h e a v ie r were th e
d u e s .4
The c o n d itio n s w ere e s p e c i a l l y bad in Germany where
th e t r a n s i t i o n from fe u d a lis m to th e dawning o f commerce and
in d u s tr y seemed slo w est# T here th e p e a s a n tr y was not m e re ly
w ith o u t sh a re o f any s o r t in th e governm ent i t was in a s t a t e
o f serfdom — a c o n d itio n w hich had ended in England and had
l a r g e l y p a s se d away in F ra n c e . F orced to work f o r la w le s s
and e x a c tin g m a s te rs th e w o rs t p o s s ib le s t a t e o f f e e l i n g
e x i s te d w id e ly betw een th e p e a s a n tr y and th e l o c a l n o b le s .
The d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith e x i s t i n g a u t h o r i t y in Church and
S t a t e was more w id e -sp re a d in Germany a t th e c lo s e o f th e
f i f t e e n t h c e n tu ry th a n in any o th e r c o u n try in E urope. The
c o r r u p tio n o f th e Church a u t h o r i t i e s had begun to s t i r up
th e w ra th o f th e p e a s a n ts everyw here. N ag ler^ sa y s:
Simony and g r a f t , th e s a l e o f p a rd o n s, d is p e n s a tio n s ,
and o f f i c e s may have f i l l e d th e c o f f e r s o f many p r e
l a t e s , b u t a t th e expense o f a r i s i n g p r o t e s t o f th e
4
Jacob,S alw yn S c h a p iro , S o c ia l Reform and th e
R efo rm atio n (New York: Longman’ s Green & Company, 1909),
p . 58 ,
5
N a g le r, op, c i t . , p . 119.
63
e x p lo ite d c l a s s , ’
Says L indsay:
The tim es o f th e R efo rm atio n were r i p e f o r r e v o lu ti o n ,
and th e words o f th e h o ld p r e a c h e r, coming when a l l men
were r e s t l e s s , and most men were o p p re sse d , a p p e a lin g
e s p e c i a l l y to th o s e who f e l t th e burden heavy and th e
yoke g a l l i n g , w ere fo llo w e d by h ig h sounding r e v e r b e r
a tio n s .®
Not a l l o f th e c o m p la in ts and c r i t i c i s m s o f th e
p e a s a n tr y were d e s t r u c t i v e , how ever, n o t a few o f them were
v ery c o n s tr u c tiv e in n a t u r e . Many schemes o f re fo rm were
pro m ulgated by p e a s a n t le a d e r s a t t h i s tim e , and though n o t
a l l o f them can be g iv e n , th e tr u e g rie v a n c e s o f th e p e a s a n ts
can be s e t f o r t h in no b e t t e r way, p e rh a p s , th a n by g iv in g
th e g i s t o f one o f th e s e schem es. Let us lo o k a t "The Twelve
A r t i c l e s , " as one o f th e schemes was c a l l e d . I n sp e ak in g o f
"The Twelve A r t i c l e s , " S c h a p iro say s : ?
The demands a re s t r i c t l y a g r a r ia n and a r e by f a r th e
b e s t s ta te m e n t o f th e g rie v a n c e s o f th e German p e a s
a n ts a t th e end o f th e M iddle Ages t h a t was produced
d u rin g th e p e a s a n t r e v o l t .
The p e a s a n ts demanded: (1) The r i g h t to choose t h e i r p a s to r
who sh o u ld p re a c h th e u n a d u lte r a te d G ospel; (2) exem ption
from th e sm a ll t i t h e ; (3) r e l e a s e from serfdom ; (4) th e
r i g h t to f i s h and h u n t; (5) a s h a re in th e f o r e s t s f o r t h e i r
^ Thomas M. L in d say , A H is to r y o f The R efo rm atio n
(New York; C h a rle s S c r i b n e r ’ s Sons, 1 912), p . 327.
7
S c h a p iro , p p . c i t . . p . 136.
64
h o u seh o ld n ee d s; (6) a m i t i g a t i o n of f e u d a l s e r v ic e s ; (7)
payment f o r a l l la b o r in a d d i t i o n to th e c o n tr a c te d r e q u i r e
m ents; (8) a r e d u c tio n o f r e n t s ; (9) s e c u r i t y a g a in s t i l
l e g a l punishm ent; (10) th e r e s t o r a t i o n of th e common la n d s ;
(11) th e a b o l i t i o n o f th e d e a th d u ty t h a t p e r m itte d th e
s e iz u r e o f th e most v a lu a b le c h a t t e l o f th e d eceased te n a n t;
and (12) th e su b m issio n of th e s e demands to th e t e s t of th e
S c r i p t u r e , w ith th e prom ise t h a t e v e ry demand n o t in a c c o rd
ance w ith th e B i b l i c a l te a c h in g sh o u ld be w ithdraw n. These
Q
a r t i c l e s a s w e ll a s th e o th e r schemes o f re fo rm were c i r
c u la te d th ro u g h o u t th e em pire b u t were r e j e c t e d w ith con
tem pt by th e L o rd s.
These a r t i c l e s c o n ta in th e e sse n c e o f th e re fo rm
demanded by such le a d e r s as John B a ll and Wat T y le r in
E ngland, John Huss in Bohemia, Hans Boheim and Hans P itc h f o r k
o f Germany, Jo sh F r i t z and one "Poor Gonrad" a ls o o f Germany,
and o t h e r s . These le a d e r s were cham pions o f th e p e a s a n t
d u rin g th e lo n g p e r io d o f t h e i r s t r u g g le f o r g r e a t e r freedom .
T h e ir work f i n a l l y c u lm in a te d in th e P e a s a n t R e v o lt, d u rin g
w hich th e y l o s t L u th e r’ s su p p o rt and g r e a t numbers o f them
were s la u g h te r e d . L u th er was th e lo n g a w a ite d l e a d e r . He
d id n o t come from a p r i v i l e g e d s o c i a l ra n k , b u t from th e
common p e o p le . He was o u tsp o k en in h i s id e a s about r u l e r s .
8
F or f u l l t e x t see S c h a p ir o .lo c . c i t .
65
He b e lie v e d t h a t th e k in g s and p r in c e s who w ere made to
s e rv e th e p e o p le were f a i l i n g in t h e i r d u t i e s , sa y in g t h a t
th e p r in c e s were e i t h e r th e g r e a t e s t sc o u n d re ls o r th e
g r e a t e s t f o o ls in th e w o rld ,
A y e a r b e fo re th e p e a s a n t u p r is in g L u th er w ro te :
The la b o r in g man t r i e d beyond a l l en d u ran ce, o v e r
whelmed w ith i n t o l e r a b l e b u rd en s w i l l n o t and can n o t
any lo n g e r tam ely subm it; and he has d o u b tle s s good
re a s o n s f o r s t r i k i n g w ith th e f l a i l and th e clu b as
Hans P i tc h f o r k th r e a te n s to do, I am d e lig h te d to see
th e t y r a n t s tr e m b lin g .9
L u th e r ’s m essage was a m essage th a t th e p e a s a n ts lo n g ed to
h e a r , a m essage o f freedom , a m essage o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e . I t
meant a r e l e a s e from t h e i r i n t o l e r a b l e burdens and freedom
from th e ty ra n n y o f t h e i r m a s te r s .
But th e c r u c i a l t e s t of L u th e r ’ s s o c i a l v is i o n came
w ith th e o u tb re a k o f t h e p e a s a n t ’ s w ar. L u th er e x p re s se d
a p p ro v a l o f most o f t h e i r dem ands. But when th e y r e s o r t e d
to f o r c e o f arms a g a in s t h is b e lo v e d p r in c e s , he tu rn e d
f u r i o u s l y a g a in s t them . Whereupon th o u sa n d s upon th o u sa n d s
o f p e a s a n ts were b u tc h e re d and th e p eo p le were p lu n g ed in to
more a b je c t s e r v itu d e th a n b e f o r e . L u th er was blamed f o r
th e r i s i n g ; L u th eran p a s to r s w ere s la u g h te r e d w ith th e
p e a s a n ts in A lsace; and many la n d ed m agnates, p r e v io u s ly un
d e c id e d , now d e c id e d a g a in s t th e R e fo rm a tio n . L u th e r h im s e lf
l o s t f a i t h i n th e p e o p le and s id e d w ith th e o p p r e s s o r s . F or
^ Hulme, p p . c i t . , p . 252,
66
t h i s tre a c h e r o u s a c t he s ta n d s condemned f o r e v e r . He i n
f l i c t e d an in e x p ia b le blow on P r o te s ta n tis m , on Germany, and,
w o rst o f a l l , on S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s
s ta n d ta k en by i t s fo u n d e r L u th eran ism has s in c e been v e ry
c o n s e r v a tiv e in s o c i a l m a tte r s .
N e v e rth e le s s , th e in f lu e n c e o f L u th er and th e
R efo rm atio n w hich he s e t in m otion have p ro fo u n d ly a f f e c t e d
th e l a t e r developm ent of S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y . One o f th e
g r e a t s e r v ic e s re n d e re d by L u th e r was to f r e e men from th e
th ra ld o m o f a dom ineering e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n .
The c la im o f th e C a th o lic church to dom inate e v e ry
p h ase o f l i f e had to be broken b e fo re s c ie n c e and
dem ocracy co u ld b e g in t h e i r work o f l i b e r a t i o n , con
tem p o rary r e l i g i o n was ad d in g burd en s in s te a d o f r e
moving them . . . . He (la ith e r) broke th e bonds o f
e c c l e s i a s t i c a l ty ra n n y and threw o f f th e yoke o f p a p a l
d o m in atio n ; by h is i n s i s t e n c e upon p r i v a t e judgm ent he
l a i d th e fo u n d a tio n s o f r e l i g i o u s , i n t e l l e c t u a l and
c i v i l l i b e r t y , and made p o s s i b le th e r i s e o f modern
dem ocracy and th e sp re a d o f th e s c i e n t i f i c method*^
But th e r e i s one o th e r r e s u l t o f L u th e r ’ s em phasis
upon p r i v a t e judgment and i n d i v i d u a l r e l i g i o u s e x p e rie n c e
th a t d id much to h in d e r th e developm ent o f a s o c i a l approach
to th e C h r i s t i a n m essage n o t o n ly in L u th e r’ s own day, but
in l a t e r c e n tu r ie s as w e l l . T his h in d ra n c e grew o u t o f
L u th e r ’ s in te n s e s u b j e c t i v i t y , h i s in w ard n ess, h is em phasis
on in n e r f a i t h and f e e l i n g . To be s u re , t h i s elem ent has.
g
Sherwood Eddy and K irb y Page, Makers o f Freedom
(New York: George H. D oran Company, 1926), p . 121.
67
en a b le d Germany to g iv e to th e w o rld th e d e e p e s t music o f th e
s o u l, and th e most p ro fo u n d p h ilo s o p h y . Yet t h i s same deep
s u b j e c t i v i t y h as i n f l i c t e d on S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y one o f th e
g r a v e s t d i s a s t e r s . I t h a s to o g e n e r a lly cau sed C h r i s t i a n i t y
to become i n t r o s p e c t i v e and t o be i d e n t i f i e d w ith r e l i g i o u s
in d iv id u a lis m .
There i s , o f c o u rs e , a c e r t a i n inw ardness in th e
G ospel. L u th e r’ s age resp o n d ed to th e in w ard n ess and s p i r i t
u a l i t y o f th e G ospel in such a way t h a t th e g o a l o f th e
C h r is t ia n l i f e came to be co n ceiv ed o f l e s s as th e consumma
t i o n o f th e Kingdom th a n a s th e u lti m a t e s a l v a t i o n o f th e
i n d i v i d u a l .
But as th e P r o t e s t a n t movement had g a in e d i t s freedom
and broken away from th e C a th o lic Church, in l i k e manner th e
s e c u la r w orld went to th e extrem e and g a in e d i t s freedom from
th e dominance o f any church a t a lT . Says M cConnell:
Soon a f t e r th e R efo rm atio n got w e ll u n d er way th e
ch u rch , o r th e c h u rc h e s, found th e f i e l d s o f t h e i r
d i r e c t a c t i v i t i e s r a p i d l y s h r in k in g . I n t e r n a t i o n a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s became a re a lm by i t s e l f . E d u c a tio n
was in c r e a s in g l y s e c u l a r i z e d . B u sin e ss began more
and more e a r n e s t l y to i n s i s t t h a t i t co u ld n o t be
e x p e c te d to t o l e r a t e any e c c l e s i a s t i c a l i n t e r f e r e n c e .
The r e l i g i o u s in d iv id u a lis m w hich was a c c e n tu a te d by
th e R e fo rm a tio n , h as worked a g a in s t S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y a l l
B ishop F ra n c is J . M cConnell in C h r i s t i a n i t y and
S o c ia l A d v e n tu rin g . Jerome S. D av is, e d i t o r (New York: The
C en tu ry Company, 1927), p . 44.
68
th ro u g h th e in te r v e n in g y e a rs up to th e l a s t d ecad es o f th e
n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . But th e r e have been a few in d iv i d u a ls
d u rin g t h i s tim e who have cau g h t a glim pse o f th e s o c i a l na
tu r e o f th e C h r is t ia n m essage.
One o f th e s e was th e le a d e r o f th e M e th o d ist movement,
John W esley. As S te a d s a y s :
The age o f W esley was an age o f I n d iv id u a lis m . He was
suprem ely concern ed about th e s a l v a t i o n o f th e i n d i
v id u a l s o u l. He was th e p ro p h e t o f p e r s o n a l evangelism ,
and M ethodism h a s to o o f te n been i d e n t i f i e d w ith r e l i g
io u s in d iv id u a lis m . W esley was to o c lo s e to th e h e a r t
o f th e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h to be o th e r th a n a S o c ia l
G h r i s t i a n . i l
W esley r e a l i z e d t h a t th e C h r i s t i a n l i f e was n o t ex
h a u s te d in p re a c h in g and ch u rch g o in g . N e a rly e v e ry form o f
s y s te m a tic r e l i e f engaged h i s a t t e n t i o n . H is s o c i a l v is io n
found e x p re s s io n in th e S t r a n g e r ’ s S o c ie ty , p o o r r e l i e f ,
f r e e la b o r b u re a u s , m e d ica l d is p e n s a r i e s , o rp h a n a g e s, and
w idow s’ homes, As i f i t were n o t enough, W esley.had a
l i v e l y con cern in g r e a t s o c i a l economic and p o l i t i c a l ques
t i o n s o f th e day, such a s c iv ic re fo rm , d u e lin g , sm uggling,
p r is o n re fo rm , in te m p e ran c e and s l a v e r y , S m i t h a ls o w r i te s
t h a t W esley p r o t e s t e d a g a in s t b r ib e r y and c o r r u p tio n in
p o l i t i e s , and o rg a n iz e d r e l i e f work f o r th e p o o r. He
F ra n c is H e rb e rt S te a d , The S to rv o f S o c ia l
C h r i s t i a n i t y . V ol. II(New York: George H. Doran Company,
1 9 8 4 ) , p. 139.
N a g le r, prp. c i t . . p. 104.
69
e s t a b l i s h e d f o r them a r e l i e f b an k .^ ^
In a d d i tio n to th e work o f W esley, d u rin g th e e ig h
te e n th and n in e te e n th c e n tu r ie s s e v e r a l n o te w o rth y e f f o r t s
in th e i n t e r e s t o f S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y w ere u n d e r way, b o th
in Europe and A m erica. C h ie f among th e s e w ere th e movements
tow ard th e a b o l i t i o n o f s la v e r y , p r is o n re fo rm , tem p eran ce,
and th e work o f th e Church in b e h a lf o f o rg a n iz e d la b o r . Of
im p o rtan ce a l s o was th e movement tow ard p o p u la r e d u c a tio n
w hich o r i g i n a t e d w ith R o b ert R aik es (1735-1811), fo u n d e r o f
th e modern Sunday S ch o o l, w h ile th e movement tow ard s o c i a l
s e ttle m e n ts was s e t g oing by A rchbishop Toynbee u n d er th e
i n s p i r a t i o n o f Samuel B a r n e tt.
Yet in s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t such c o n t r ib u t io n s
added much to th e p r o g re s s o f S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y d u rin g th e
e ig h te e n th and n in e te e n th c e n t u r i e s , th e y were l a r g e l y th e
work o f o u ts ta n d in g C h r i s t i a n le a d e r s and not th e e x p re s s io n
o f a g r e a t s o c i a l aw akening w ith in th e c h u rc h e s . As y e t too
much im p o rtan ce was a tta c h e d to th e i n d i v i d u a l r e l i g i o u s ex
p e r ie n c e f o r C h r i s t i a n i t y a s a whole to awake to th e v is io n
o f rem aking th e s o c i a l l i f e and i n s t i t u t i o n s in a c c o rd w ith
th e p r i n c i p l e s o f J e s u s .
As has been b ro u g h t out in th e fo re g o in g d is c u s s io n
th e work of S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y up to th e l a s t decade of
Samuel G. Sm ith, Democracy and th e Church (New
York: D. A ppleton Company, 1912), p . 293.
70
th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y h as been i n c i d e n t a l in n a tu r e and has
r e c e iv e d b u t s l i g h t em phasis, by com parison in th e t o t a l
developm ent o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , As R auschenbusch s a y s :
The s o c i a l e f f e c t s h i t h e r t o produced by C h r i s t i a n i t y
have been produced i n d i r e c t l y as by p ro d u c ts , and th e
main c u r r e n t o f i t s power h as been d e f le c te d from th e
ta s k o f C h r i s t i a n i z i n g S o c ia l l i f e . ^ ^
Up to t h i s p o in t in th e h i s t o r y o f S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y
th e main aim h as been to p re a c h and to work f o r re fo rm in g
in d iv i d u a l s in n e r s and to p r a c t i c e r e l i e f o f th e p o o r and
n eed y . T h is was b o th p ra is e w o rth y and n e c e s s a ry ; but i t
seems to have l e f t u n v isa g e d and unhoped f o r a new s o c i a l
o rd e r w hich would use th e s e elem e n ts and o th e r s in th e work
o f s o c i a l red em p tio n o f a l l s o c i e t y in c lu d in g i n d iv i d u a ls and
s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . "Seek ye f i r s t th e Kingdom o f God and
h i s r ig h te o u s n e s s and a l l th e s e th in g s s h a l l be added u n to
T K
y o u ." T h is does n o t mean " s e e k to g e t in to th e Kingdom o f
God," but "se e k to b r in g in th e Kingdom o f God on e a r t h " —
and th e r e s t w i l l i n e v i t a b l y ta k e c a re o f i t s e l f . That con
c e p tio n and em phasis were l e f t f o r our day.
W a lte r R auschenbusch, C h r i s t i a n i t y and th e S o c ia l
C r i s i s (New York; George H. Doran Company, 1907), p . 164.
M atthew, 6 :3 3 .
CHAPTER IX
THE SOCIAL EMPHASIS DOMINANT IN M ODERN CHRISTIANITY
B eginning l a t e in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry and s t e a d i l y
g a in in g momentum up t o our day, f o r th e f i r s t tim e i n i t s
h i s t o r y , th e dom inant em phasis o f C h r i s t i a n i t y has become
/
s o c ia l# As has been shown, i t has r e c e iv e d some e x p re s s io n
a t v a rio u s p e rio d s o f h i s t o r y , b u t i t sh o u ld be o b serv ed t h a t
th e Church h as n ev er moved as a u n i t . T his s u g g e s ts two
th in g s : F i r s t , p r o g r e s s alw ays m a n ife s ts i t s e l f in one o r
more men who move in advance o f th e crowd# That means t h a t
th e la g g e r s ho ld back p r o g r e s s , p re v e n t r a p id advance, and
o f te n ca u se s e r io u s r e a c t i o n . The in d iv i d u a ls of th e Church
a re n o t a l l p u l l i n g in th e same d i r e c t i o n . Many a re n o t o n ly
n o t h e lp in g , but a re a c t u a l l y h o ld in g back th e work of p ro
g r e s s i v e s . Anyone who h as l i v e d long in t h i s p e r io d o f
grow ing i n t e r e s t in S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y knows what th a t means#
Then, to o , a la r g e elem ent i n th e Church t h a t i s n o t a c t u a l l y
h o s t i l e to new id e a s i s y e t slow to see what p r o g re s s iv e
l e a d e r s s e e , and a re slow to j o i n th e movement#
The fo re g o in g would i n d i c a t e c l e a r l y why th e Church
h as been so lo n g and so slow in r e a c h in g i t s p r e s e n t y e t a l l
to o in a d e q u a te a t t i t u d e w ith r e g a rd to S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y ,
N e v e rth e le s s , C h r i s t i a n i t y i s now m o b iliz in g on a new f ro n t#
I t i s r e a c h in g f o r s o c i a l m o tiv a tio n . I t h a s begun th e
72
r e c a s t i n g o f th e s o c i a l h e r i t a g e i n t o such form s as w i l l make
p o s s i b le th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f i t s e s s e n t i a l s p i r i t . I t may be
t h a t t h i s i s as c r u c i a l and d i f f i c u l t an e n t e r p r i s e as i t has
e v e r u n d e rta k e n . F or i f th e s o c i a l a s p e c ts o f C h r i s t i a n i t y
a r e e s s e n t i a l to i t s s p i r i t , as t h i s p a p e r h as h e ld to be th e
c a s e , f a i l u r e to make them e f f e c t i v e in th e p r e s e n t ho u r
m ight be d i s a s t r o u s to C h r i s t i a n i t y and c i v i l i z a t i o n as w e ll.
C e r t a i n l y i n view o f what has been s a id ab o u t p r o g re s s in th e
Church th e t a s k w i l l n o t be an e a sy one n o r w i l l i t be accom
p lis h e d i n a s h o r t p e r io d of tim e . I t i s now c l e a r th a t even
th e " S o c ia l Movement" and th e accom panying d em o cratic s p i r i t ,
though c h i ld r e n o f th e p r e s e n t ag e, have th e m selv es been lo n g
in d e v e lo p in g .
T his d ev elo p m en tal a s p e c t can be se en in th e v e ry f a c t
t h a t th e e s s e n t i a l ro o ta g e o f th e movement tow ard S o c ia l
C h r i s t i a n i t y i s found in th e p r i m i t i v e C h r is t ia n te a c h in g o f
th e supreme w orth o f man in th e s i g h t o f God. The te a c h in g
was th e r e but many o th e r stream s of th o u g h t and id e a s have
combined to c l a r i f y th e id e a and to l i f t i t up where i t s im
p l i c a t i o n s can now be se en , p a r t i a l l y , a t l e a s t . B ut, s t i l l
o th e r .id e a s have a ls o h e lp e d to p ro v id e th e s o i l out o f
w hich t h i s em phasis has f i n a l l y em erged. F o r exam ple, th e
h u m a n istic s t r e s s on man’ s w o rth a s a c i t i z e n of t h i s w orld,
th e r a t i o n a l i s t i c s t r e s s upon th e power o f man’ s re a s o n to
g ra p p le w ith th e problem s of l i f e , and a ls o th e h u m a n ita ria n
73
em phasis on th e v a lu e o f each human l i f e . These have a l l
in f lu e n c e d th e Church and have in tu r n been in flu e n c e d by
th e C h r i s t i a n s p i r i t . In d eed , th e y have f o rc e d th e Church
to r e t h i n k and r e d is c o v e r th e meaning o f i t s d o c tr in e o f th e
supreme w o rth of man. Growing out o f th e f a c t t h a t th e
Church h as begun to r e t h i n k t h i s d o c t r in e , th e r e i s to d a y an
e v id e n t sh a rp e n in g o f c o n sc ie n c e c o n c e rn in g s o c i a l q u e s tio n s
which were once c o n s id e re d to have no r e l a t i o n to r e l i g i o n .
C h r i s t i a n i t y i s b ein g looked upon more and more as a "way o f
l i f e . ” E a rn e s t s tu d y i s being g iv en to th e m eaning o f r e
l i g i o n in term s o f human r e l a t i o n s , s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ,
and s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . The l a r g e r r e l i g i o u s b o d ie s and
some o f th e s m a lle r ones a re demanding a new em phasis upon
th e s o c i a l te a c h in g s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .
E s p e c ia l ly i s th e r e a grow ing demand f o r a c l e a r in
t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n in r e l a t i o n to such
q u e s tio n s as i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t r i f e , r a c e p r e ju d ic e , p o v e rty ,
b u s in e s s , in d u s tr y , and k in d re d problem s o f wide s o c i a l
scope and c o n c e rn .^ T his would in d ic a t e a growing c o n v ic
t i o n t h a t r e l i g i o n i s not e x h a u ste d in th e o lo g y and e c c le -
s i a s t i c i s m , and t h a t th e day has p a s s e d when men were
s a t i s f i e d to le a v e th e w o rld a t la r g e pagan and r e s t r i c t
F . E rn e s t Jo h n so n , The S o c ia l Work o f th e C hurches
York; D epartm ent o f th e R e search o f th e F e d e r a l C o u n cil
o f C h r is t in A m erica), C h a p ters I and I I ,
74
C h r i s t i a n i t y to ”a few in d iv i d u a l d e c e n c ie s in p r i v a t e
T his tr e n d tow ard S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y i s a re su rg e n c e
of th e id e a of th e G ospel in c u lc a te d by th e p ro p h e ts in th e
Old T estam ent and by Je s u s in th e Mew T estam e n t. I t i s p r i
m a rily a s o c i a l G ospel and th e p rim a ry o b je c t o f th e
C h r i s t i a n Church i s to i n s p i r e men to e s t a b l i s h on t h i s
e a r t h th e Kingdom which i s h e re and now th e r e ig n o f r i g h t
eo u sn ess o f f a i r d e a lin g , o f peace and g o o d w ill, of u n iv e r s a l
w e lf a r e .
Because i t has met much o p p o s itio n , t h i s new i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y has n o t had c l e a r s a i l i n g . Adverse
winds o f u n e n lig h te n e d c r i t i c i s m have a s s a i l e d i t , and i t has
s u f f e r e d from f a l s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . C o n seq u en tly , th e e x a c t
n a tu r e o f t h i s g r e a t movement w hich to d a y has become th e
dom inant em phasis o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i s n o t alw ays c l e a r . Cer
t a i n l y i t i s not an a tte m p t to d e s tro y a n y th in g th a t i s
w o rth w h ile in C h r i s t i a n i t y as i t s opponents have f r e q u e n tly
a s s e r t e d , b u t i t i s an a tte m p t to combine in a c r e a t i v e way
a l l th e h e r i t a g e o f h i s t o r i c C h r i s t i a n i t y , th e f in d in g s o f
modern c r i t i c a l stu d y and th e d is c o v e r ie s o f th e s o c i a l
s c ie n c e s and to u t i l i z e th e s e in b u ild in g th e Kingdom o f God.
2
H arry Emerson F o sd io k , "The F u tu re o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , ”
Review o f R eview s. 77:103, Ja n u a ry , 1928,
75
The s o c i a l G ospel a c c e p ts g la d ly th e c o n t r ib u t io n s o f s c ie n c e
w ith o u t r e l i n q u i s h i n g i t s h o ld upon th e f a c t t h a t no perm a
n e n t s a l v a t i o n can ta k e p la c e w ith o u t th e c r e a t i o n o f a new
s p i r i t . Nor does th e s o c i a l em phasis o b v ia te in d iv i d u a l r e
l i g i o n . F o r, even though in d iv i d u a l r e l i g i o n h as demon
s t r a t e d i t s inad eq u acy to s o lv e th e problem o f th e s in s o f
s o c i e t y , i t i s y e t a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l .
I t i s j u s t t h i s in ad eq u acy o f I n d iv id u a l R e lig io n , in
th e f a c e o f p o w e rfu l u n c h r i s t i a n f o rc e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s
w hich has cau sed th e r i s e to prom inence o f th e s o c i a l con
t e n t o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .
The b e g in n in g s o f th e modern s o c i a l tr e n d o f
C h r i s t i a n i t y in E ngland d a te s from M aurice and K in g sle y , and
s in c e h as been c a r r i e d on by a g g r e s s iv e A n g lic a n s, l i k e
B ishops W escott and G ore. In America i t was begun d u rin g
th e l a s t two decades o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry by s e v e r a l
o u ts ta n d in g C h r is t ia n l e a d e r s . The th r e e w r i t e r s who brought
fo rw ard th e s o c ia l i d e a l s of C h r i s t i a n i t y in a new, p o s i t i v e ,
and s ti m u la tin g way in th e c lo s in g d ecad es o f th e l a s t cen
tu r y w ere W ashington G ladden, J o s ia h S tro n g , and R ic h a rd T.
E ly , About 1883 th e y began to d is c u s s in p r i n t th e s o c i a l
c o n te n t o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .
These men l a i d th e fo u n d a tio n s b u t th e o u ts ta n d in g
exponent o f S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y in th e U n ite d S ta te s was
W a lte r H auschenbusch. In h i s two famous books, C h r i s t i a n i t y
76
and The S o c ia l C r i s i s and C h r i s t i a n i z i n g The S o c ia l O rder,
he n o t o n ly c l a r i f i e d th e s o c i a l m essage o f C h r i s t i a n i t y ,
b u t he a lso i n t e r p r e t e d th e m essage in term s o f th e contem
p o r a ry s o c i a l o r d e r , and made S o c ia l C h r i s t i a n i t y h i s m ain
em phasis.
As was p r e v io u s ly m en tio n ed , th e c o n s e rv a tiv e elem ent
in a l l ch u rch es who s t i l l m a in ta in t h a t r e l i g i o n i s s o l e l y
a m a tte r of in d iv i d u a l co n c ern , have g r e a t l y r e t a r d e d p ro
g r e s s . But th e r e c e n t d e c lin e o f s t r i c t o rth o d o x y has been
accom panied by an em phasis upon t h e b ro a d e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f th e G ospel, Pronouncem ents have been fo rm u la te d by church
b o d ie s on a v a r i e t y o f s u b je c ts c o v e rin g alm ost e v e ry p h ase
o f l i f e . At th e b e g in n in g o f th e c e n tu ry i n t e r e s t in th e
s o c i a l im p lic a tio n s o f th e G ospel were lim ite d to a sm a ll
group o f s o c i a l re fo rm e rs and t h e o l o g i c a l s tu d e n ts ; but by
1908, th e g o v e rn in g b o d ie s o f s e v e r a l le a d in g d en o m in atio n s
re c o g n iz e d th e o b l i g a t i o n o f th e Church in such m a tte r s w ith
th e r e s u l t t h a t a number of s o c i a l r e s o l u t i o n s w ere p a s se d a t
th e an n u a l c o n v e n tio n s o f th e s e d e m o n in a tio n s. S in c e th e n ,
th e number o f pronouncem ents has in c re a s e d g r e a t l y . Of th e s e
s o c i a l c re e d s and pronouncem ents o n ly th e more im p o rta n t w i l l
be m en tio n e d .
The famous e n c y c li c a l o f Pope Leo X III on th e c o n d i
t i o n s o f la b o r ap p e ared in 1891. Ten y e a rs l a t e r th e
P r o t e s t a n t E p is c o p a l Church was th e f i r s t P r o t e s t a n t
77
d enom ination to ta k e o f f i c i a l r e c o g n i tio n o f th e s u b je c t
when i t s g e n e ra l assem bly a p p o in te d a com m ission to s tu d y
th e w orking c o n d itio n s o f th e l a b o r e r . I t was n o t u n t i l
1908, how ever, t h a t a com prehensive s e t o f r e s o l u t i o n s was
drawn up in t h i s c o u n try . I n th a t y e a r th e G en eral
C onference o f th e M e th o d ist E p is c o p a l Church fo rm u la te d a
S o c ia l C reed t h a t was l a t e r a d o p ted by th e F e d e r a l C o u n cil
o f C hurches and h as been g e n e r a lly c a l l e d th e S o c ia l Creed
o f th e P r o t e s t a n t C hu rch es. Many o th e r ch u rch es p a sse d sim
i l a r r e s o l u t i o n s d u rin g th e n e x t few y e a r s , but most o f them
have ad o p ted th e S o c ia l C reed o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t C hurches.
Here a t r i b u t e to th e work o f Kagawa i s in o r d e r; f o r
no s in g l e in d iv i d u a l, p e rh a p s , has e v e r so combined th e con
c e p tio n s and e x p e rie n c e s and p r a c t i c e s o f s p i r i t u a l , p e rs o n a l
r e l i g i o n w ith s o c i a l aims th a n Kagawa o f Ja p a n . He h as
founded and m a in ta in s upwards o f t h i r t y i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r
s o c i a l b e tte rm e n t in Ja p a n . The e f f e c t o f h i s em phasis upon
and p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e s o c i a l im p lic a tio n s o f th e
G ospel w i l l l a t e r be se en n o t to have been s u rp a s s e d up to
th e p r e s e n t tim e .
The C reed o f th e P r o t e s t a n t C hurches a s o r i g i n a l l y
drawn up was co n cern ed w ith such economic problem s as th e
e ig h t h o u r day, one d a y ’s r e s t in se v en , a l i v i n g wage, and
v a rio u s o th e r m easures f o r th e w e lfa re o f th e l a b o r e r i n
c lu d in g th e a b o l i t i o n o f c h ild la b o r , r e g u l a t i o n o f th e
78
o o n d itio n s o f la b o r f o r women, s u p p re s s io n o f th e sw e a tin g
system , and p r o t e c t i o n from i n d u s t r i a l a c c id e n ts , and occu
p a t i o n a l d i s e a s e s .
But from tim e to tim e th e c re e d h as been m o d ifie d .
In 1912 i t was amended to in c lu d e a p le a f o r th e r i g h t o f
a l l men to o p p o r tu n ity f o r s e lf- m a in te n e n c e , f o r th e p ro
t e c t i o n o f th e w orker from th e h a rd s h ip s o f f o r c e d unemploy
m ent, and a demand f o r a new em phasis upon th e a p p l i c a t i o n
o f C h r i s t i a n p r i n c i p l e s to th e a c q u i s i t i o n and u se o f p ro p
e r t y , as w e ll a s f o r th e most e q u ita b le d iv is io n o f th e
p r o d u c ts o f in d u s tr y t h a t can u l t i m a t e l y be d e v is e d . L a te r
pronouncem ents d e a l t w ith such is s u e s a s th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n
o f th e w orker in th e income from in d u s t r y , a minimum wage to
p ro v id e p ro p e r l i v i n g c o n d i tio n s , s o c i a l in s u ra n c e , unemploy
ment and farm r e l i e f . The r a p id grow th o f th e S o c ia l G ospel
i s s e t f o r t h by F ry who sa y s:
There h as a ls o been a grow ing in c lu s iv e n e s s in th e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p la c e d upon th e S o c ia l G o sp el. From
an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n l i m i t e d to improvement o f th e con
d i t i o n s o f th e i n d u s t r i a l w orker and to such p r o
h i b i t o r y m easures a s S ab b ath o b se rv a n c e , th e concep
t i o n h as broadened to in c lu d e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s ,
s o c i a l j u s t i c e , e d u c a tio n , and alm o st e v e ry im a g in a b le
phase in th e developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l and o f
s o c ie t y ,^
The trem endous p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r good t h a t a re
L u th er Ci F ry , in R ecent S o c ia l T re n d s. R ep o rt o f
th e P r e s i d e n t ’ s R e sea rc h Committee on S o c ia l T rends (New
York; M cGraw-Hill Book Company, 1 933), p . 1014.
79
w rapped up in t h i s r e d is c o v e r y o f th e s o c i a l m essage o f th e
C h r is t ia n R e lig io n a re v i r t u a l l y u n lim ite d . S i l v e r says
t h a t :.
The r e l i g i o n o f th e w e ste rn w o rld i s f a s t s h i f t i n g i t s
c e n te r o f g r a v i t y from th e heavens, w hich belongs t o
Cod, to th e e a r t h which Cod gave to t h e c h ild r e n o f
men. I n t h i s e a r t h l y re a lm o f ta n g le d l i v e s and p u r
p o s e s , s t i l l so s a d ly d i s f i g u r e d by p o v e rty and h a te
and ig n o ra n c e and wrong, in th e m id st o f t h i s communion
o f s a i n t s and s in n e r s w hich we c a l l hum an ity , r e l i g i o n ,
d e r iv in g v a s t power from i t s m ig h ty c o n v ic tio n s , and
c a p a b le of c r e a t i n g moods and a t t i t u d e s among men which
a r e most congen i a l f o r m oral id e a lis m , can be o f s e rv ic e
to s tr u g g lin g mankind in a moat d e c is iv e manner
^ Abba H i l i e 1 S i l v e r , R e lig io n in a Changing World
(New York: R ic h a rd R. Sm ith, 1 931).
CHAPTER X
SÜ M feîA H Y OF FINDINGS
P erh ap s th e b e s t way to p r e s e n t a summary w ould be
to s e t f o r t h th e more im p o rta n t f a c t s o f each c h a p te r .
In th e f i r s t c h a p te r th e f a c t became e v id e n t t h a t
t h e r e were in th e l i f e eind te a c h in g s o f J e s u s s u f f i c i e n t so
c i a l i d e a l s and m o tiv es w hich, i f r i g h t l y i n t e r p r e t e d and
p r o p e r ly d i r e c t e d would n e c e s s a r i l y be g iv e n a s o c i a l ex
p r e s s i o n , and make f o r th e tra n s fo rm a tio n o f b o th th e i n d i
v id u a l and s o c i e t y in k ee p in g w ith th o se p r i n c i p l e s .
I n th e Graeco-Homan w o rld w hich was th e m ilie u o f
e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y th e c u r r e n t r e l i g i o n s f u rn is h e d l i t t l e
s o c i a l im p e tu s. Though such groups a s th e E p ic u re a n s and
S to ic s w ere k e e n ly aware o f d e f e c ts in th e S o c ia l O rder,
th e y o f f e r e d no c o n s tr u c tiv e program to m eet th e needs o f
th e m a sses. T hree f a c t o r s h e lp to ac co u n t f o r t h i s s o c i a l
im p o ten ce. F i r s t , th e b e l i e f t h a t God w ith o u t th e co o p e ra
t i o n o f man would u sh e r in th e new o rd e r o f e x is te n c e ;
seco n d , th e a t t i t u d e o f p a s s iv e su b m issio n to en vironm ent;
t h i r d , th e f a c t t h a t th e a p p e a l of th e r e l i g i o n s was l a r g e l y
to th e i n t e l l e c t u a l c l a s s e s .
The s o c i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and e x p re s s io n o f J e s u s ’
i d e a l s d id n o t ta k e p la c e in th e E a rly Ghurch, c h i e f l y f o r
two r e a s o n s . (1) The b e l i e f in C h r i s t ’ s speedy r e t u r n to
81
e a r t h a g a in to s e t up h i s Kingdom; (2) th e f a c t t h a t
C h r i s t i a n i t y was lim ite d bo th i n number and a u t h o r i t y . They
were n o t g r e a t l y oonoerned, i f a t a l l , ab o u t th e p r e s e n t
w o rld which w ould soon p a s s away.
D uring th e t h i r d , f o u r th and f i f t h c e n t u r i e s , th e
e n e r g ie s o f th e Church were consumed in d o c t r i n a l c o n tro
v e r s i e s and th e a c c u m u la tio n o f w e a lth . No c o n sc io u s m oral
r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f s o c ie ty as we c o n c eiv e i t to d a y was a t
tem p ted i Due to t h e p u r s u i t o f w e a lth and pow er, th e Church
became absorbed in w o rld ly a f f a i r s and so ta n g le d in th e
o r is s - C r o s s in g p o l i t i c a l , a n d economic l i n e s , th a t s in c e r e
s e e k e r s a f t e r r e l i g i o u s s a t i s f a c t i o n , found i t an a lm o st i n
t o l e r a b l e d w e llin g p l a c e . The m o n a stic movement r e s u l t e d ;
and became one o f th e dom inating In flu e n c e s o f th e M iddle
A ges. The work o f th e monks was o f g r e a t b e n e f i t to c i v i l
i z a t i o n , but t h e i r s e r v ic e s to s o c i e t y were n o t th e o r i g i n a l
o r p rim a ry p u rp o se o f t h e i r s e c lu s io n . T h e ir s e r v ic e s were
sim p ly by-products o f t h e i r m o n a stic l i f e , and dp n o t r e p r e
s e n t a p u rp o siv e a tte m p t t o p r a c t i c e th e b ro a d e r s o c i a l
te a c h in g s o f J e s u s . D uring th e same p e r io d th e dom inant
em phasis o f C h r i s t i a n i t y as embodied in th e Church was upon
th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f a v a s t e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n , and
th e m ain ten an ce o f th e p a p a l suprem acy. I n i t s co n c ern w ith
m a t e r i a l .m a t t e r s th e Church became e x c e e d in g ly c o r r u p t. Then
th e F r i a r s came and s e t in m o tio n th e f i r s t in s ta n c e o f a c tiv e
82
C h r i s t i a n s o c i a l s e r v ic e in la y s o c i e t y . F o r a tim e i t
seemed a s i f th e s o c i a l e x p r e s s io n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y by S t .
F ra n c is and h i s f o llo w e r s m ight redeem th e Church and so
c i e t y , b u t th e y f a i l e d to a v e r t th e f a l l o f th e r a p i d l y de
c l i n i n g C hurch. T here f o llo w e d .a p e r io d o f grow ing d is c o n
t e n t . The R e n a issa n c e found th e in d iv i d u a l once m ore. The
common p e o p le became p r o g r e s s i v e l y more d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith
th e o p p re s s io n by both Church and S t a t e . Then when th e
R e fo rm a tio n came th e tim e was r i p e f o r i t . L u th er was th e
le a d e r o f th e movement w hich r e s u l t e d in freedom from au
t h o r i t a t i v e e c c l e s i a s t i c i s m f o r a l l who w anted i t . But th e
in w ard n ess o f L u th e r ’s r e l i g i o u s e x p e rie n c e and h i s d o c t r in e
o f h i s J u s t i f i c a t i o n by f a i t h a lo n e found a c o u n te r p a r t in
th e inw ard n a tu r e o f th e r e l i g i o n o f J e s u s ; from t h i s cam©
an o v er-em p h a sis on in d iv i d u a l s a l v a t i o n to th e g r e a t n e g le c t
o f th e s o c i a l im p lic a tio n s of C h r i s t i a n i t y . B efore lo n g
n e a r l y e v e ry re a lm o f l i f e became s e c u l a r i z e d . The "w o rld ”
broke away from r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t y as P r o te s ta n tis m had
broken away from th e M other C hurch. T h is c o n d itio n p r e
v a i le d , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e work o f W esley and s i m i l a r
l e a d e r s , u n t i l th e dawn o f th e p r e s e n t s o c i a l aw akening.
H elp in g to s e t th e s ta g e f o r th e aw akening were such f a c t o r s
a s th e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o lu tio n w ith i t s em phasis upon in d u s tr y
and b u s in e s s to th e s u b o r d in a tio n o f human w e lf a r e , th e p ro
g r e s s o f th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s , th e p r o g re s s in B i b l i c a l
83
c r i t i c i s m , th e d e c lin e o f extrem e in d iv id u a lis m , a s w e ll as
o th e r developm ents in th e s o c i a l p ro c e s s i t s e l f . I n th e
p r e s e n t aw akening, G h r i s t i a n i t y f o r th e f i r s t tim e in i t s
h i s t o r y i s d o m in an tly s o c i a l .
F or many y e a rs W a lte r H auschenbusch was one o f th e
m ost i n s p i r i n g le a d e r s o f th e modern e f f o r t to C h r i s t i a n i z e
th e S o c ia l O rder, and i t i s a l t o g e t h e r f i t t i n g t h a t one o f
h i s P ra y e r s o f th e S o c ia l Awakening sh o u ld s e rv e as a con
c l u s io n to t h i s d is c u s s io n :
A P ra y e r F or W o rk in ^ e n
0 God, th o u m ig h tie s t w orker o f t h e u n iv e r s e , so u rc e
o f a l l s t r e n g t h an d a u th o r o f a l l u n i t y , we p ra y th e e
f o r o u r b r o th e r s , th e i n d u s t r i a l w o rk ers of th e na
t i o n . As t h e i r work b in d s them to g e th e r in common
t o i l and d a n g e r, may t h e i r h e a r t s be k n i t to g e th e r in
a s tr o n g sen se o f t h e i r common i n t e r e s t s and d e s tin y .
Help them to r e a l i z e t h a t th e i n j u r y o f one i s th e
concern o f a l l , and th a t th e w e lf a r e o f a l l must be
th e aim o f e v e ry o n e. I f any of them i s tem pted to
s e l l th e b i r t h r i g h t o f h is c l a s s f o r a mess o f p o tta g e
f o r h im s e lf , g iv e him a w id e r o u tlo o k and a n o b le r
sympathy w ith h i s f e llo w s . Teach them to f u l f i l l th e
law of C h r i s t by b e a rin g th e common burdens*
G rant th e o r g a n iz a tio n s o f la b o r q u ie t p a tie n c e and
p ru d en ce in a l l d is p u te s , and f a i r n e s s to se e th e
o th e r s i d e . Save them from m a lic e and b i t t e r n e s s .
Save them from th e h ea d lo n g f o l l y w hich r u in s a f a i r
cau se and g iv e them wisdom r e s o l u t e l y to p u t a s id e
th e tw o-edged sword o f v io le n c e t h a t tu r n s on th o se
who s e iz e i t . R a ise up f o r them s t i l l more le a d e r s
o f a b le mind and la r g e h e a r t , and g iv e them g ra c e to
fo llo w th e w is e r c o u n s e l.
When th e y s t r i v e f o r l e i s u r e and h e a l t h and a b e t t e r
wage, do th o u g ra n t t h e i r cause s u c c e s s , b u t te a c h
them n o t to w aste t h e i r g a in on f l e e t i n g p a s s io n s ,
b u t to use i t in -b u ild in g f a i r e r homes and a n o b le r
84
manhood. G rant a l l c l a s s e s o f o u r n a tio n a l a r g e r
com prehension f o r th e a s p i r a t i o n s o f la b o r and f o r
th e co u rag e and w o rth of th e s e our b r o t h e r s , t h a t we
may c h e e r them in t h e i r s tr u g g le s and u n d e rsta n d them
e v e n ^ in - th e ir -sins^^ And— may the-upw ard clim b o f I^ b o r
i t s d e f e a ts and i t s v i c t o r i e s , in th e f a r t h e r re a c h e s
b le s s a l l c l a s s e s o f our n a tio n , and b u ild up f o r th e
r e p u b lic o f th e f u tu r e a g r e a t body o f w o rk e rs, s tr o n g
in lim b , c l e a r o f m ind, f a i r in tem p er, g la d to la b o r ,
c ons-cious o f t h e i r w orth,; and s t r i v i n g to g e th e r f o r
th e f i n a l b ro th e rh o o d o f m a n . T
^ W a lte r R ausohenbusch, P ra y e rs o f th e S o c ia l Awaken
in g (B oston: The P ilg r im P r e s s , 1909), p . 57.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. BOOKS
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F o a k e s -Ja ck so n , F . J . , I n tr o d u c tio n to th e H is to r y o f
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.» M o n a stio ism : I t s I d e a l s and H i s t o r y . London;
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and E d u ca tio n o f th e F e d e r a l C o u n c il o f C hurches o f
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K ir k p a tr ic k , C l i f f o r d , R e lig io n i n Human A f f a i r s . Hew York:
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90
, The F o u n d a tio n o f Modern R e lig i o n . London: C. H.
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A bbot, Lyman, "The S o c ia l G o sp e l," The O u tlo o k . 150:658,
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E n c y c lo p e d ia B r i t a n n i c a . New York: The E n cy c lo p ed ia B r ita n n ic a
Company, In c o r p o ra te d , 1929, 1 4 th e d i t i o n . See
"M o n astio ism ," " F r i a r s , ” " C h r i s t i a n i t y , ” " E a rly C h u rc h ,”
e t c . - -
E n cy c lo p ed ia o f th e S o c ia l S c ie n c e s . New York: The M acm illan
Company, 1930. See " C h r i s t i a n i t y , ” "M o n a stio ism ,”
"M endicant O rd e rs ," and o th e r r e l a t e d s u b j e c t s .

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Unique identifier UC11312232

Identifier EP65104.pdf (filename),usctheses-c39-171058 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP65104.pdf

Dmrecord 171058

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Davis, J. M.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA